Part I

The Physics of "Dark Energy".

The Mechanism of Galaxy Acceleration.

Stellar Velocity Dispersion.

Chapter 1

THE PHYSICS OF "Dark Energy"

   Modern astrophysics constantly faces problems in understanding cosmic space. And the main problem is PHYSICS!

   The laws of physics hinder astrophysicists from understanding the physics of the cosmos.

Theories in astrophysics live for centuries without considering the evolution of physical knowledge. The perpetuation of outdated theories is upheld by the authority of great scientists, who have become idols of theoretical physics and astrophysics. An outdated gravitational concept has dominated for over 300 years. In theoretical astrophysics, the lack of knowledge of the laws of physics is compensated by "fairy tales" about the aether, an absolutely black body, dark matter, and dark energy. Astrophysicists bear no responsibility for their fantasies and are not constrained by logic, facts, or the laws of physics. But the most surprising thing for physicists is that astrophysicists themselves invent their own laws, which operate somewhere out there, in distant galaxies.

   Physicists are considered highly intellectual representatives of humanity. But it took them over 200 years to understand that an absolutely black body does not exist. They themselves invented the "absolutely black body" and themselves abolished it 200 years later. How can one debate with theoretical physicists who need 200 years to understand the error of their theories? How can one debate with theoretical physicists who today believe that non-existent dark matter exists and permeates them? Dark matter, which no one has ever seen, which has been sought for about 100 years and cannot be found. Is it possible to explain to these lovers of science fiction that the laws of physics exist? The frightening thing is not that a person is mistaken; the frightening thing is that a person does not understand that he is mistaken!!!

   Perhaps psychologists or psychiatrists would have a more productive discussion with theoretical physicists...

   The analytical study "Analytical Physics. Analytical Astrophysics" examines events and phenomena related to the concept of dark matter and refutes the hypothesis of its existence. Modern astrophysicists believe that this matter permeates them.

"Dark energy" is another mystery, another dark page in modern astrophysics.

   According to the ubiquitous gravitational concept, the expansion of the universe should be slowing down. But scientific research has revealed that the expansion of the universe is not slowing down but, on the contrary, accelerating!!! This means that the gravitational concept, dominant in theories about the motion of galaxies in the universe, is erroneous.

On a universal scale, gravitational interaction between objects is exaggerated. The exaggeration of gravity's role in cosmic physical processes has led modern astrophysics into an intellectual dead end.

   In modern astrophysics, the following law is observed: "facts invariably contradict theories." And it would seem that it's high time to change something.

But it is much easier to invent another incredible theory about something dark, absolutely black, and absolutely dense. Oh! "Dark energy"! Another fake for obtaining the Nobel Prize.

   Let's move on to examining the astrophysical mystery of "Dark Energy."

We will not retell the entire history of this mystery's birth. We will try to express only the essence of the problem.

As mentioned above, in the theoretical fantasies of outdated astrophysicists and cosmologists, the expansion of the universe should occur with deceleration. But, after researching the motion of stars and galaxies, it was concluded that the universe, contrary to the wishes of astrophysicists and cosmologists, is expanding and expanding with acceleration. This is "ILLEGAL"! This means the gravitational concept does not operate in the universe! I would be surprised if modern astrophysicists and cosmologists guessed right even once.

Gravity is a force that acts over short distances and decreases in proportion to the square of the distance from its sources. To act over large distances, mass would need to increase quadratically, which is problematic in cosmic space with its enormous distances. No astrophysicist or cosmologist has looked for the reasons for the acceleration of the universe's expansion among already known laws of physics. They decided to call this phenomenon the effect of "dark energy." And for another 200 years, they can search for this dark energy. It's easier that way. No need to rummage through school physics textbooks, looking for any laws. It's much simpler and faster to invent a new law and link dark energy to the effect of the vacuum.

The unprofessionalism of theoretical physicists reveals shortcomings in the analytical and psychological training at universities and the lack of a fundamental system for analytical research.

In the 1990s, it was established that the universe is expanding not with deceleration, as logically agrees with the gravitational concept, but on the contrary, the universe is expanding with acceleration. This contradicts that concept.

In modern astrophysics, another physical mystery has appeared, called "Dark Energy." So many physical mysteries have accumulated in the physics of the cosmos that questions arise: "Are astrophysicists physicists?" and "Are astrophysicists specialists in the physics of the cosmos?"

So, what is "Dark Energy"? And WHY does the universe expand with acceleration?

1.1. The Motion of Stars in Space and the "Dark Energy" of Space.

 The motion of a star in cosmic space can be hindered by external forces, such as:

1. Gravity of neighboring stars;

2. Resistance of the gaseous medium of cosmic space;

3. Resistance of gas flows in cosmic space.

But, despite all these possible resistances, stars and galaxies move with acceleration in cosmic space.

Gravitational resistance to a star's motion.

The value of gravitational force decreases in proportion to the square of the distance between objects. That is, at distances between stars, the effect of gravitational forces is not significant. The action of gravitational forces is possible at short distances between stars. Such an effect occurs in binary star systems (double stars) and more. However, a double star can be considered as a single object that moves with acceleration in cosmic space.

Researchers of cosmic space have noticed that with increasing age, the speed of stars increases. If the motion of stars is constantly accelerating, then their speed depends on their age. But age is a temporal parameter, non-material, and does not manifest physically.

So, what's the trick???

If the speed of stars depends on their age, then there must be a reason for such a dependency. And this reason must have a physical-material manifestation. And this reason cannot be external, as modern astrophysicists believe. If a star's speed depends on its age, then the reason for this connection lies within the star itself, in its design.

That is, the star's design contains a "mechanism" that accelerates its motion. If such a mechanism exists, it must necessarily manifest its action.

In what should this action manifest? This action may manifest in changes of some parameters of the star itself.

And this mechanism exists, and this mechanism works, and this mechanism manifests its work!!!

The stellar wind, corona, and heliosphere of a star are this mechanism!!!

How does the mechanism of a star's motion acceleration work? And what relation does the stellar wind, corona, and heliosphere have to this mechanism.

The emission of energy into cosmic space is accompanied by the star losing part of its mass. The part of mass released into cosmic space in the form of energy goes to create the stellar wind, corona, and heliosphere around the star. The heliosphere is a gas-plasma bubble around the star. Within this gas-plasma bubble, the star moves through cosmic space. The resistance of gas and gas flows in cosmic space is neutralized by the plasma flow of the heliosphere. The star moves within the heliosphere created by the star itself. And the heliosphere moves in cosmic space. In cosmic space, it is not a lone star that moves, but a complex mechanism, or an entire physical-energy system. And this complex physical-energy system moves, eliminating the resistance of the environment. That is, the physical-energy system – the star – can move at any speed without experiencing environmental resistance.

But the star moves in cosmic space with acceleration!!!

Where does the acceleration of the star's motion come from?

INCREDIBLE!!! BUT, PHYSICALLY LAWFUL!!!

The loss of part of its mass increases the star's speed of motion in cosmic space!

That is, a star, emitting part of its mass into cosmic space, accelerates!!! How is this physically justified?

A star traveling through space has momentum:

Iz = Mz . Vz = const                      (1.1)

Iz – star's momentum; Mz – star's mass; Vz – star's velocity.

The star's momentum has a constant value and strives to preserve it. According to the law of conservation of momentum, a decrease in the star's mass symmetrically increases its velocity of motion.

That is, a star as a physical-energy system creates a heliosphere around itself, which is an energy bubble.

The energy potential of the heliosphere eliminates the resistance of the external cosmic environment, creating favorable conditions for the star's motion in cosmic space. And within this energy bubble, favorable conditions are created for the formation of the star's planetary system and for the emergence of biological life.

The loss of mass spent on creating the energy bubble (heliosphere) accelerates the star's motion in cosmic space. This fact is a clear example of the double conversion of mass into energy. The part of the star's mass spent on emission creates an energy bubble around the star and simultaneously accelerates the star, converting into the kinetic energy of the star's motion.

Throughout its life, a star loses part of its mass by emitting it into space. Consequently, throughout its life, a star accelerates.

The acceleration of stars' motion in cosmic space occurs under the action of Newton's 2nd and 3rd laws, the law of conservation of momentum, and the law of conservation of energy. (The law of conservation of momentum was first formulated by René Descartes. – Wikipedia.org)

Conclusion:

A dependency exists between the increase in stars' velocities and their age. This dependency is related to the star's loss of part of its mass due to energy emission into space. Since a star emits energy into space throughout its life, through the star's mass loss, there is a dependency between the star's velocity and its age.

And so, let's move on to investigating the "Dark Energy" phenomenon. It was determined that objects in the universe are moving away from the conditional center of the universe with acceleration.

Why "from the conditional center"? Because we do not yet know the coordinates of the universe's true center.

The expansion of the universe was discovered in the 1930s.

Let's examine the mystery of dark energy from the standpoint of already known laws of physics.

The expansion of the universe and its acceleration are determined by sources of light waves.

Sources of light waves in galaxies and the universe are stars. That is, the expansion and acceleration of the universe's expansion are determined by the motion of stars and their clusters. Consequently, the physics of the "dark energy" solution must lie in the physics of stars. If the cause of the "dark energy" phenomenon were located in the space of the universe, then galaxies would show signs of visual deformation. This visual deformation of galaxies would occur under the influence of the uneven potential of forces acting in space. This uneven distribution of force potential would exist due to differences in distances between observed objects and the sources of the acting forces. The correct appearance, the forms of galaxies, indicate the absence of external influence. The influence of external force sources would manifest in the motion and deformation of the forms of gas-dust matter flows in the universe. But such deformations are not observed. Consequently, there is no reason to assume that the "dark energy" effect occurs under the influence of external forces. Perhaps the "dark energy" effect is embedded in the internal energetic properties of stars and galaxies. Let's test this possibility. The internal energetic properties of an object are expressed in its momentum formula and its total energy formula. Let's analyze these formulas.

At birth, a star receives kinetic momentum. If during its life the star is not subjected to the influence of other forces, then the direction of motion and the value of the initial kinetic momentum should be preserved.

Where:
I₀ – Kinetic momentum received by the star at its birth under the influence of force F₀;
F₀ – Force under whose influence the star received kinetic momentum I₀;
∆τ₀ – Time of force F₀ acting on the star;
Iτ – Kinetic momentum of the star after time τ since birth;
M₀ – Mass acquired by the star at birth (initial mass of the star);
V₀ – Velocity of the star acquired at birth under the influence of force F₀ (initial velocity of the star).

Let's summarize all events occurring with the star's kinetic momentum into one formula.

where:
Mτ – mass of the star after time τ since its birth;
Vτ – velocity of the star after time τ since its birth.

Let's examine formula (1.1) in more detail in the time dimension.

Part of the formula (1.1.a):
The influence of force F₀ on the star during its birth and the initial period of its life.
The action of force F₀ determines the parameters of the star's initial kinetic momentum I₀.
Force F₀ is the sum of unit forces Fᵢ acting on the star during its birth and the initial period of its life.

where:
Fᵢ – unit force acting on the star during its birth and the initial period of its life;
n – number of unit forces acting on the star during its birth and the initial period of its life.

Part of the formula (1.1.b):

Initial kinetic momentum I₀ received by the star during its birth and the initial period of its life. During the time period of receiving impulse I₀, the star's velocity and direction of motion are set. Three parameters – mass, velocity, and motion parameters – the star acquires at birth. These three parameters determine the entire fate of the star.

Part of the formula (1.1.c):

Kinetic momentum Iτ of a star moving in cosmic space after time τ since its birth. This kinetic momentum is equal to the initial momentum of that star I₀, Iτ = I₀.

That is,

Let's examine the momentum formula more carefully.

In formula (1.1.c) there are two factors Mτ and Vτ, the star's mass and its velocity of motion. If the value of momentum Iτ is constant, then the product of these two factors is constant Mτ·Vτ = Const. But space researchers have established that the universe is expanding with acceleration, consequently, stars must also be moving with acceleration.

If in equality (1.1.c) one of the factors increases, then the second factor must decrease proportionally to the increase of the first. This decrease must be physically justified!

And this justification exists!!! – The emission of energy by the star into cosmic space! The emission of energy by a star is accompanied by the loss of part of its mass. That is, in formula (1.1.c) factor Mτ is variable. Consequently, with a change in the star's mass Mτ, the conservation of momentum must occur due to a change in its velocity Vτ. If the star's mass Mτ decreases, then the star's velocity Vτ must increase, which is exactly what space researchers discovered in the 1990s.

The decrease in a star's mass is a physical axiom. Consequently, the acceleration of a star's motion is physically lawful!!!

And conversely: if stars in cosmic space move with acceleration, then the decrease in the star's mass according to the laws of physics is lawful.

The search for the existence of "Dark Energy" is postponed until the next casus. Let's determine the formula for the change in a star's velocity with a change in its mass.

From formula (1.1), after transformations, we obtain the formula for the star's velocity in cosmic space and in time (1.2).

From formula (1.2) it can be seen that the star's velocity over time should increase proportionally to the decrease in its mass.

But, the gas-dust medium in cosmic space should exert resistance to the star's motion. And this resistance should slow down the star's motion. But in reality, the opposite happens; the star's motion accelerates. It's all very simple! The loss of the star's mass goes towards energy emission. The star's energy emission occurs through the emission of particles, atomic nuclei, electromagnetic waves, X-rays, and gamma radiation. This emission forms a heliosphere around the star. This heliosphere is a protective sphere around the star. The heliosphere protects the star from the effects of gas-dust flows in cosmic space. The star moves in space within a gas-plasma bubble, which protects the star from the effects and resistance of the external cosmic environment. That is, resistance to the star's motion in space exists due to the physical features and design of the star.

The decrease in the star's mass goes towards the formation of the heliosphere. The star's heliosphere hinders and eliminates the resistance of the cosmic environment. This allows stars to move in cosmic space without encountering resistance and without reducing the values of the star's velocity and momentum.

Perhaps similar mechanisms of interaction with cosmic space also exist for galaxies.

While cognizing the universe, we are learning the genius of the Creator's creation!

Let's perform an energy calculation of a star to reveal energy traces associated with the "Dark Energy" effect.

In physics, kinetic and nuclear energies are calculated using different formulas, which leads to errors and inaccuracies in calculations. To obtain more objective information, we will perform calculations for two variants of the formula for the total energy of a star. Numerical values are not the goal of the energy calculation at this stage. The goal of the calculations is to search for the energy mechanism embedded in the physics of the star, creating the effect of "Dark Energy."

Total energy of a star:

where:
Ek – kinetic energy of the star;
En = M · c² – nuclear energy of the star;
M – mass of the star;
c – speed of light.

Let's consider the change in the total energy of the star from some initial moment (possibly from the moment of its birth) τ₀ with W₀ to moment τ with Wτ.

W₀ – total energy of the star at some initial moment in time after its birth.

Ek.0 – kinetic energy of the star at the initial moment.
En.0 – nuclear energy of the star at the initial moment.
M₀ – mass of the star at the initial moment.
V₀ – velocity of the star at the initial moment after its birth.

Wτ – total energy of the star at time τ after its birth;
∆w – change in the star's total energy (part of energy lost by the star over time τ);
Mτ – mass of the star at time τ after its birth

∆m - changes in the mass of a star (the fraction of mass lost by the star over a period of time τ);

(∆m . c2) – energy emitted by the star over time period τ.

Vτ – velocity of the star at time τ after its birth.

Δv – change in the star's velocity over time period τ after its birth.
Substituting formula (1.4) into formula (1.5) we obtain the formula for the dependence of the star's total energy Wτ on the total energy of the star in the initial period W₀.
But Wτ can also be expressed by another formula:

Let's set up equations for the star's total energy Wτ, taking into account its lifetime τ, and transform, considering Mτ = M0 - ∆m: 

After transforming formula (1.7), we obtain the equality: 

   Equality (1.8) indicates that the kinetic energy acquired by the star at birth is preserved during its life. But it is reliably known that the star's mass decreases due to the star's energy emission into cosmic space. Consequently, the decrease in the star's kinetic energy due to the decrease in its mass must be compensated by an increase in the star's velocity. The loss of kinetic energy by the star due to mass loss is restored by the star increasing its velocity in cosmic space.

From equality (1.8) we find the dependence of the change in the star's velocity in cosmic space on the change in its mass.
However, in physics, there is an incorrectness in the formula for kinetic energy. The problem of the incorrectness of the kinetic energy formula was considered in the scientific work "Analytical Physics. Analytical Astrophysics."
Let's analyze equality (1.8) using two variants for calculating kinetic energy Ek. In the analysis, we will compare both variants and determine the most correct formula.

Variant #1:
In the formula for the star's total energy

for kinetic energy Ek, the formula   Ek = M · V · c   (1.9)  is applied,

where:
M – mass of the star;
V – velocity of the star;
c – speed of light.
In formula (1.9) "c" – the speed of light, is an energy coefficient for converting kinetic momentum to the energy scale of nuclear physics.      

En = M · c²

That is, the star's kinetic energy Ek and nuclear energy En = M · c² are brought to the same energy scale by the coefficient "c".

Let's denote Ek for the first variant as "1Ek"

   1W = 1Ek + En                 (1.3.1)

1W – total energy of the star for analysis of variant #1;
1Ek – kinetic energy of the star for variant #1;
                                                                                 1Ek = M · V · c

Variant #2:

2W = 2Ek + En                 (1.3.2)

where:
2W – total energy of the star for analysis of variant #2;
2Ek – kinetic energy of the star for variant #2;
In variant #2, the star's kinetic energy Ek is calculated by the classical formula

Analysis of Variant #1

 1W = 1Ek + En                 (1.3.1)

In variant #1, the formula for the star's total energy (1.3) will take the form of formula (1.10):

Equations for variant #1:

From equality (1.8.1) we derive the formula for the dependence of the star's velocity Vτ on the change in the star's mass Mτ = M₀ - Δm.
Mτ · Vτ · c = M₀ · V₀ · c
Variant #1

Consequently, Vτ > V₀
That is, the star's velocity increases throughout its life.

Analysis of Variant #2

In variant #2, the formula for the star's total energy (1.3) will take the form of formula (1.12):

The equations for option #2:

From equality (1.8.2) we derive the formula for the dependence of the star's velocity Vτ on the change in its mass Mτ = M₀ - Δm, considering that

В варианте №2 равенство (1.8.2) имеет вид:

В варианте №2, как и в варианте №1:

   То есть, звезда всю свою «сознательную» жизнь движется в космическом пространстве, с ускорением.

Сравним, формулы скоростей Vτ (1.11) и (1.13), полученных при анализе вариантов №1 и №2, а так же формулу, полученную при анализе кинетического импульса звезды (1.2). Как видно из сравнения формул (1.2), (1.11) и (1.13), формула (1.11) полученная в варианте №1 идентичная формуле (1.2) полученной при анализе кинетического импульса звезды. Эта идентичность говорит о корректности формулы расчета полной энергии и кинетической энергии звезды в варианте №1.  

Некорректность формул варианта №2

незначительна, при условии не большом значении параметров ∆m и τ.

Но реальную степень некорректности формул вариантов №1 и №2 возможно определить только по научно-практическим исследованиям движения звезд и галактик.

Проведем анализ формулы полной энергии звезды. Для анализа выберем формулы (1.9) и (1.10) варианта №1. Проведенный анализ верен и для формулы (1.12) варианта №2.

Анализ формулы полной энергии звезды движущейся во времени и в космическом пространстве.

Полная энергия звезды:

Примем наиболее корректную формулу кинетической энергии звезды (1.9) из варианта №1:

Формула полной ядерной энергии звезды:

Полная энергия звезды в начальный период ее жизни:

Полная энергия звезды через время жизни τ:

Где:

Преобразуем формулы (1.5) и (1.6), с учетом формул (1.4), (1.14) и (1.15).

Рассмотрим формулу (1.16) более внимательно:

При преобразовании формул (1.5) и (1.6) проявились два дополнительных слагаемых:

Что означают эти слагаемые?

Эти слагаемые (-Ek.m), (+Ek.v) имеют отношение к изменению кинетической энергии звезды.  (-Ek.m) – потеря кинетической энергии звездой за счет потери ее массы. (+Ek.v) – увеличение кинетической энергии звезды за счет увеличения ее скорости. Исходя из верности формул (1.5), (1.6) и (1.16) слагаемые (-Ek.m), (+Ek.v) должны быть равны и компенсировать друг друга в формуле (1.16).

   Возможно, существуют, какие-то отклонения от равенства слагаемых (-Ek.m), (+Ek.v). Эта вероятность существует, и если формула расчета полной энергии звезды (1.12) верна. Точный ответ можно получить, только анализируя практические исследовательские данные. 

В данный момент мы исходим из того, что слагаемые (-Ek.m) и (+Ek.v) должны быть равны и компенсировать друг друга.

Тогда,

Это значение ∆v соответствует значению формулы (1.11) после ее преобразования:

Для варианта №2,

Анализ формулы (1.18) аналогичен анализу формулы (1.16) в варианте №1.

После преобразования и упрощения,

находим увеличение скорости звезды через формулу энергии звезды в варианте №2:

Этот же результат мы получим и при решении формулы (1.13), в варианте классической, но некорректной формулы полной энергии звезды.

Результаты анализа, двух вариантов формулы полной энергии звезды, с целью определения изменения скорости звезды во время ее жизни, представлены в таблице № 1.1. В 8-й строке, таблицы № 1.1, представлены данные полученные при анализе кинетического импульса звезды. Результаты анализа кинетического импульса звезды совпадают с результатами анализа варианта №1, формулы полной энергии звезды. То есть, вариант №1, формулы полной энергии звезды более корректен, чем ее классический вариант №2. Разница в численном значении не большая, и для масштабов космоса может оказаться незначительной. Но, корректность варианта для формулы полной энергии звезды, должна определяться только практическими исследованиями.

(1) ТАБЛИЦА № 1.1

В последующих энергетических анализах будут применены формулы более корректного варианта №1:

НАУЧНО-ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКАЯ ПЕРСПЕКТИВА:

Очень интересная исследовательская тема – «Как изменяется скорость и направление движения звезды после ее смерти, сброса своей оболочки, после взрывов белых карликов, нейтронных звезд, сверхновых звезд? Как изменяется скорость и направление движения останков этих звезд?». «Возможно ли, по плотности, химическому составу, характеристикам движения планет и останков звезд определить параметры этих звезд?»

   Но, теория теорией, вычисления вычислениями. А что говорят практические исследования? Что значат формулы, если действительность им противоречит?

Так что же говорят практические исследования?

Для ответа на этот вопрос необходимо провести аналитическое исследование скоростей движения в космическом пространстве звезд, белых карликов и нейтронных звезд.

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