Article 4ar:

The main physical processes, accompanying a star at the end of life.

Flashes of supernew stars.

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Article 4ar:

The main physical processes, accompanying a star at the end of life. Flashes of supernew stars.

The modern astrophysics does not explain to the physicist of the processes, occurring at flashes of supernew stars. The main mistake of modern astrophysics is that the phenomena of flashes of supernew stars is considered as the separate, independent phenomenon, which is not connected with the physical events, occurred to a star before.

In analytical astrophysics, researches of physical processes in supernewstars, begin with a research of the physical processes, occurred in stars before.

To simplify understanding of physics of the processes, occurred at flashes of supernew stars, we remember physics of nuclear explosions.

There are two types of nuclear explosions in nuclear physics:

1. Uranium bomb – explosion at fission of heavy (transuranium) chemical elements by neutrons;

2. A hydrogen bomb – explosion at synthesis of light nuclei of chemical elements (hydrogen nuclei).

All nuclear explosions in space belong to the first or to the second case.

1. – Nuclear explosions, at fission of heavy transuranium elements, corresponds to supernew star flash of the first type. Atflashes ofsupernew stars of the first type, the star shell, containing no hydrogen in the spectrum, is released.

Probably in this case, the part of energy is released and with self-decay of atoms superheavy-nuclei.Existence of such atomic nuclei is possible in the conditions of stars.

2. – Nuclear explosions, at thermonuclear synthesis with participation of hydrogen and light elements nuclei. This process corresponds to flash of a supernew star of the second type. This process is characterized by hydrogen existence in the spectral analysis of supernew stars flashes.

To understand the nature of supernew stars flashes, it is necessary to understand all chain of the physical processes occurring to a star in the period of its life.

Let’s briefly consider physical processes in stars, until transformation of a star into supernew. The space is filled with hydrogen gas (+11H) with A=1, and atomic nucleus is proton. The proton (hydrogen nucleus) is the simplest particle of the universe. People and the world around consist of atoms and molecules more difficult than hydrogen atoms. It is possible to build (to synthesize) nucleus of any atom out of protons (hydrogen).

But the nuclear reactor is necessary for building more complex atoms. The star is the nuclear reactor.

Atoms of matter, that people and the world around consist, are synthesized out of hydrogen atomic nuclei, in the star. That is, matter of a man body as well as matter of the world around, had transformation process in the star. What transformations happen to matter in a star?

The star is the nuclear reactor, and it is possible the nuclear installation also, constructed of the hydrogen, filling outer space. Hydrogen is nuclear fuel for a star and construction material for building of more complex matter, atoms for all chemicals. Construction of more complex matter happens in a star, in the nuclear reactor. There is a synthesis of atomic nuclei of all known chemical elements in a star, and it is possible chemical elements also, whichstill notknown to mankind. There is a synthesis and heavy transuranium chemical elements in a star. This fact is confirmed by the spectral analysis of stars (Sun) and the fact of synthesis +99Es (Einsteinium) and +100Fm (Fermium) during explosion of a hydrogen bomb. Hydrogen and Helium are gases and the lightest chemical elements, therefore, they occupy the topmost layers of a star. The arrangement of hydrogen and helium in the top layers of star disturbs an objective research of the chemical composition of a star, because hydrogen and helium cover other chemical elements, located in the deep of stars. There is high-energy plasma, generated by thermonuclear synthesis, higher than hydrogen level (in the photosphere and the chromosphere). Existence and generation of high-energy plasma and thermonuclear synthesis in the photosphere and the chromosphere, is supported by supplying of nuclear fuel of hydrogen and helium from the layer, located below. The spectral analysis of the top layers of a star (Sun) confirms the facts of all known chemical elements synthesis, including transuranium. Light chemical elements occupy the top layers of a star, heavier chemical elements fall down, purifying nuclear fuel, hydrogen and helium from slags. Gaseous slags (chemicals is heavier than helium) occupy level below helium.Liquid and solid slags fall to the center of a star by gravity, forming a star core – the white dwarf. Formation and existence of a star core is confirmed by helioseismology researches, researches of neutrino telescopes, appearance of white dwarfs after star “death”. That is, the chemical elements synthesized in the star are accumulated and stored in the star center, forming its core – the white dwarf. The star is the nuclear reactor constructed of hydrogen (nuclear fuel).

The genius of such decision surprises.Such design can be compared to car engine design, constructed of gasoline.

That is, the engine is both the motor and the gasoline tank. Making energy, the engine burns itself. Existence of the engine without fuel is useless. Existence of a star as nuclear reactor has several purposes: – energy production; – matter construction; – construction (formation) of a star core, as construction of future planet or a black hole for reproduction of space processes.

The processes happening at flashes of supernew stars happen at the end of star life, more precisely during its “dying”. Let’s analyze a condition of a star and its components at the end of star life.

At the end of life the star goes through the red giant stage. Because, energy of thermonuclear synthesis is not able to constrain heated gas-plasma mixture any more, the atmosphere of a star extends and volume increases many times over. If thermonuclear synthesis in the top layers, throughout life, prevented expansion of gas-plasma mixture and held it in volume of a star, then thermonuclear synthesis, in the case of red giant, plays the opposite role. When heated from the inside, gas-plasma mixture as much as possible extends, speeds of the particles movement are supported by high temperatures. Probably, there are dynamic processes (flashes, explosions, etc.), accompanying nuclear reactions, on a surface of the white dwarf. Perhaps, these dynamic processes contribute to the red giant volume increasing and heating of its atmosphere. After the cessation of thermonuclear synthesis and cooling of gas-plasma mixture in the center of the former red giant, there is a white dwarf — a star core, forming during its life. After the maximum expansion and cooling of gas-plasma mixture around the white dwarf, formed the area of the low pressure — a vacuum, relative to gas, surrounding outer space. The heliosphere, surrounded a star and constrained gas flows from outer space decreases and disappears with decreasing and disappearance of star wind. Space gas and dust are absorbed to this volume of a vacuum, containing a white dwarf in the center. Under certain parameters of the former star and gas density of surrounding space, repeated beginning of thermonuclear synthesis, around the white dwarf or a neutron star is possible. The beginning of thermonuclear synthesis is result of dynamic processes in the gas mixture which is absorbed from outer space to vacuum volume, around the white dwarf. These flashes of stars are observed at flashes of supernew stars of the second type. Under specified parameters of a star and the gas around it, numerous processes of similar flashes of the same star are possible, and that is observed in double systems.

Similar flashes are possible in the outer space, enriched with gas or in the double system of stars, where it is possible to overflowing of gas from a star surface to the white dwarf or a neutron star. This process has to be characterized by availability of hydrogen in the spectral analysis. Similar processes are also possible for a neutron star.

After explosion (collapse), vacuum volume is also formed around a neutron star, where gas absorbed from outer space.

Consider a case of star absorption by black hole figure № 4.1.

Consider NASA simulation movie of the red giantabsorption by a black hole, figure № 4.1–A.

There are the location of a black hole and trajectory of the gas stream movement, moving to a black hole on figures № 4.1–B, which are not visible in the figures № 4.1–A. In the chemical composition of the red giant, hydrogen, which is high-energy nuclear fuel, is almost absent. Plasma shell of star is already energetically weak, and it is not able to hold gas-plasma mixture into star volume. The volume of gas-plasma mixture is increasing.

There is no star wind and if there’s, then very weak with a low density.

Perhaps, the majority of star wind particles have not enough speed and impulse for overcoming force of the red giant gravitation.

Under the influence of external forces, gas-plasma mixture of the red giant is deformed easier than gas-plasma mixture of a simple star. Nobody knows yet, how and which processes actually happen in the red giant, we can only analytically predict them, analyzing the available indirect data.

This NASA simulation movie about a red giant absorption by a black hole, (figure № 4.1–A), is also analyzed in some other sections of analytical astrophysics. In our chapter, we are interest in the episode of a meeting of a space gas flow with the dying star.

Let’s get to the figure № 4.1. In the picture 3, we can see the beginning of absorption of star gas-plasma mixture into a gas flow.In pictures 4 and 5, star gas-plasma mixture is completely absorbed into the gas flow, moving to a black hole. Because, fuel (hydrogen) came to star gas-plasma mixture, with a gas flow, there was a thermonuclear flash of a lot of hydrogen. This fact says, that there are nuclear reactions, perhaps thermonuclear synthesis in gas-plasma mixture of the red giant. There are nuclear reactions in the white dwarf, a neutron star and the dying star. Hydrogen intake from outer space to these space objects, creates conditions for renewal of thermonuclear synthesis. There is a thermonuclear flash of high-energy fuel – hydrogen. Perhaps, the scheme of a hydrogen bomb activates in this case. If this assumption is true, then in a case of the white dwarf, a neutron star and the dying star, the actuator (detonator) for thermonuclear synthesis is located in the center (in the white dwarf, a neutron star and in the dying star). In the scheme of a hydrogen bomb, the actuator (detonator) for thermonuclear synthesis surrounds the container with hydrogen. Perhaps, the location of the actuator (detonator) of thermonuclear synthesis does not matter in the conditions of stars, in the conditions of high capacities. Perhaps, startup of thermonuclear synthesis occurs as a result of existence of dynamic processes at the hydrogen flow movement to the white dwarf, a neutron star and the dying star. Perhaps, startup of thermonuclear synthesis occurs as a result of existence of dynamic processes in a gas flow and as a result of existence of nuclear reactions in the white dwarf, a neutron star and the dying star.

– Collapse of white dwarf of average and large masses stars.

Supernew of the first type is a nuclear explosion (collapse) of the white dwarf of stars average and large masses. Explosion occurs as a result of uncontrolled chain reaction of heavy-nuclei fission. At the same time a part or all mass of the white dwarf is thrown away. The shell of the thrown-out mass is extending, because hydrogen does not participate in this type of explosion, its spectrum is absent. After a maximum, the power of flash is decreasing under the logarithmic law. Under the same law, there is a decreasing of power of fission chain reactions. Similar flashes of supernew are possible wherever stars of average and large masses can be located. Formation of a neutron star, its radioactivity and power decreasing of this radioactivity under the logarithmic law is confirming the fact of such explosion. Releasing of star mass happens, because nuclear explosion of transuranium elements occurs in the white dwarf. Part of the white dwarf mass is thrown out by this explosion in outer space. Nuclear explosion of white dwarf is proportional to the mass of the transuranium elements, collected in a star core. Quantity of transuranium elements is over critical in a star of average weight. The white dwarf is partially destroyed by explosion. Releasing of a star shell is a release of a part of the white dwarf mass. In a star of large weight, quantity of transuranium elements is over critical and much more, than in a star of average weight. Explosion power of the white dwarf of a large weight star is great, explosion force breaks off the white dwarf, and all its mass is releasing into outer space, with greater speed.

At the moment of white dwarf explosion of average weight star, there remain a neutron star in the epicenter of explosion. Vacuum volume around this neutron star is even more, than around its white dwarf.By explosion, mass is released and forced from the large volume of outer space, where this white dwarf located.

This process corresponds to flash of a first type supernew star, when releasing the star shell, which has no hydrogen in the spectrum.

Explosion cause of the white dwarf collapse — uncontrollable chain reaction of transuranium elements fission. Spontaneous disintegration of superheavy elements, perhaps increases amount of the released energy.

In the stars conditions, it is possible nuclei synthesis of superheavy elements, which go beyond of the chemical elements periodic table, and their existence is possible only in the stars conditions. As a result of such explosion the neutron star is born.Nuclear explosion, the birth of a radioactive object (neutron star), absence of hydrogen in the spectral analysis of supernew stars flashes – all these facts are the proof of nuclear explosion of transuranium chemical elements, as a result of their fission by neutrons.

The facts proving that nuclear explosion of a supernew star resulted from fission of transuranium chemical elements by neutrons:

– nuclear explosion,

– birth of a radioactive object (neutron star),

– hydrogen absence in the spectral analysis of supernew stars flashes,

– a possibility of transuranium elements synthesis and their accumulation during star life,

– deceleration of flash power under the logarithmic law,

– bigger mass release of a star matter (white dwarf).

In this case, the speed of nuclei fission depends not only on the fissile material mass, but also on efficiency of neutron flow using.

If the fissile material mass is above the critical, then process of fission chain reaction will be increasing, that is the quantity of the fissile nuclei in each subsequent act of fission will increase. Therefore, energy, released in each subsequent act of fission will increase as well.

In this process, one of leading roles is played by density and efficiency of a neutron flow.

If at a overcritical mass of the fissile material and a high neutron flow, there will be a large neutrons leakage or their absorption by another, which are not fissile nuclei, then the speed of increase in chain reaction will be low, and that will increase lifetime of the white dwarf until explosion.

If efficiency of a neutron flow is high even at a small overcritical mass of the fissile material, then the chain reaction speed and explosion power are higher, and time of the white dwarf life is lower until collapse.

The efficiency of a neutron flow is affected by many factors: temperature, density, processes of substance mixing in the white dwarf and others.

Probably, the efficiency of a neutron flow changes over time, because of matter mixing in the white dwarf and other parameters changes, therefore, life time of the white dwarf can be different until collapse (flash of the 1st type). Probably, for stars of identical masses, this time is close to each other by value, because there are processes close to each other in subsoil of stars with close masses.

At explosion of the white dwarf, a part of its weight is released into space and the mass of the fissile material, which is already in the neutron star (former the white dwarf) becomes less than critical. Chain reaction of fission is faded.

And characteristic of radioactive radiation of a neutron star depends on the power of explosion and released mass.

– Collapse of white dwarf of large masses stars.

– At the time of the white dwarf explosion (a star of large mass), all mass of the white dwarf is released from explosion epicenter and the deep vacuum is formed in huge volume. It is also the beginning of physical processes chain called a black hole.

Supernew of the second type is a nuclear explosion of hydrogen around the white dwarf or a neutron star. These nuclear explosions occur as a result of dynamic and nuclear processes in gas around the white dwarf or a neutron star.Gas is absorbed from space in the vacuum volume, located around the white dwarf or a neutron star. Probably, a detonator of thermonuclear explosion of hydrogen is the nuclear reactions happening in the white dwarf or a neutron star and the dynamic processes happening in a gas flow.

This flash is result of repeated thermonuclear synthesis with the participation of the hydrogen, absorbed from outer space.

There are lines of hydrogen in the spectrum. There is no release of large mass from a star, because explosion does not occur in the white dwarf or a neutron star, it occurs outside, in a gas flow, around these objects. The mass of the white dwarf has to be increased. White dwarf remain after flash and repeated flashes are possible there.

The facts, proving that nuclear explosion of a supernew star is a thermonuclear explosion of hydrogen:

– nuclear explosion,

– availability of hydrogen in the spectral analysis of supernew stars flashes,

– absence of large mass release of star matter.

Accretionary disk existence around the white dwarf or a neutron star is the additional fact, confirmed nuclear explosion in the hydrogen medium.

This type of flashes is possible in space gas-rich (hydrogen) places, in arms of spiral galaxies and in double star systems, where it is a possible of masses exchange. It is possible the repeated occurrence of the second type flashes, if presence the right conditions for it.

The reasons of repeated thermonuclear synthesis are flashes of the 2nd type supernew star.

The reason of flash of a supernew star of the 2nd type is the vacuum, around the white dwarf or a neutron star releative to the gas, surrounding this space area. .

In the case of the white dwarf, the vacuum, around it, is formed because of the stopping of synthesis thermonuclear reaction and cooling of the red giant gas shell. Precisely to describe this process, it is necessary to create physico-mathematical model of similar processes.

In the neutron star case, the vacuum around it is formed because of powerful explosion and release of a mass part into outer space. This process happens more dynamically and with higher speed. Model of processes, when a shock wave is passed, are exist, but in the conditions of the discharged gas space, such as outer space, are not yet exist. Therefore, the creation of physico-mathematical model is necessary in this case also.

Flashes of supernew stars are two types of nuclear explosions (flashes of the first and second types), considered by us, and their different combination with each other.

Possible combinations of supernew star flashes.

1. White dwarf =>flash of the 2nd type =>white dwarf

2. White dwarf =>flash of the 1nd type=>neutron star

3. White dwarf =>flash of the 2nd type=>white dwarf =>flash of the 1nd type =>neutron star

4. White dwarf =>flash of the 1nd type =>neutron star =>flash of the 2nd type=>neutron star

5. White dwarf =>flash of the 2nd type+ flash of the 1nd type =>neutron star

6. White dwarf =>flash of the 1nd type + flash of the 2nd type=>neutron star

7. White dwarf =>flash of the 2nd type=>white dwarf flash of the 2nd type=>… white dwarf =>flash of the 1nd type =>neutron starflash of the 2nd type =>neutron star …

8. White dwarf =>flash of the 1nd type =>neutron star =>flash of the 2nd type=>neutron star =>flash of the 2nd type=>neutron star …

For an explanation of each variant is necessary to know physics of processes of the 1st and 2nd types flashes.

The nature of supernew star flash depends on many factors:

– mass of the former star;

– mass of the white dwarf and neutron star;

– speeds of dynamic processes in the discharged space;

– speeds of chain reaction of transuranium elements fission in the white dwarf, etc.

Combination of these and other characteristics defines type and the nature of a flash of supernewstar .

Let’s make the possible scheme of a star development at the end of life.

In case there would be no gas and dust in outer space, or in case of the low gas and dustconcentration, the scheme would have the form, shown in figure № 4.2.

But, the huge spaces, enriched with gas and dust are existed in outer space. For this case, the scheme of a star development at the end of life is shown in figure № 4.3.

Planets, former white dwarfs, passed a neutron star stage, perhaps, have density of substance higher, than planets, not passed a stage of a neutron star.

It is possible that planets, having a high density, but small sizes have the star (in the past) heavier, than the planet of the same density, but the large sizes.Because, at the time of the white dwarf explosion of heavier star, there more mass released into outer space, than at the white dwarf of star with a smaller weight.

So, we defined that at the end of life, white dwarf is remained on the place of average weight star. The mass of heavy elements, that can participate in chain fission reaction is over critical for this white dwarf.

Chain fission reaction is beginning in the white dwarf. At that time, under the influence of a vacuum, formed around white dwarf there is an absorption of gas and dustfrom outer space, which often results in renewal of light nuclei synthesis in the star atmosphere.

The combination and interaction of these two processes and nuclear explosions, possiblydefines the flashes types of supernew stars.

The critical mass of transuranium elements cannot be considered as a congestion of total weight of these elements, because many factors influenced on the process of heavy-nuclei fission by neutrons.For example, the mass of the fissile material can be over critical, but density of these nuclei position is low and chain reaction can be increased with a low speed or can be faded.

It is impossible to speak about stable or stationary processes of fission into the white dwarf, because the substance, into the white dwarf, perhaps, is in the molten state and continuously mixed, that also influences on fission speed.Temperature changes, in different parts of the white dwarf, also have an influence on the nuclei fission speed. For example, in controlling of uranium reactors is used the method of power change by temperature changing in an active zone.

Consider the scenario in the case of the Sun life end.

Because, the Sun is relates to stars of small masses, then should not be the explosion of the white dwarf due to chain fission reaction. But considering that the Sun is located in the arm of the Milky Way Galaxy, where the space has a lot of gas and dust, then the flash of the 2nd type supernew star is possible, and repeating of such flashes is also possible.Breakdown of atmospheric shells of planets is also possible under the influence of a moving gas flow from outer space to the white dwarf. Replacement of gas of the planets atmospheres with gas from gas flow is possible.Because, the star mass will decrease, then a part of planets of the Solar system will probably lose the orbits and will move to outer space to look for other stars.The process of planets losing by the Sun can begin before critical events.

It is possible, that there will not be enough vacuum volume or other parameters for ignition of a supernew star of the Sun.

– The end of life of the stars, having large mass.

Processes of synthesis happen to high speeds in stars with a large mass.

With increase in star mass, its radius and volume is also increasing.At linear increase in radius of a star, volume is increasing in cubic dependence.

Let’s take as an example a star, with radiuses 1Rs (one radius of the Sun), 2Rs (two radiuses of the Sun), 3Rs (three radiuses of the Sun) and 5Rs (five radiuses of the Sun). Where Rs is the radius of the Sun.

The schedule №G-4.1 is constructed according to calculations of pressure changes at the different levels in these stars.

From the schedule, it is gathered that: with the increase in star radius, dynamic pressure, in its depths, is increasing in square dependence.So, if star with a radius, equal to two radiuses of the Sun, at the level of the radius of the Sun, then its pressure is higher solar four times.If the star radius equal to three solar radiuses, then pressure increases to nine solar.If the star radius equal to five solar radiuses, then pressure increases twenty five times.At the level of 0.2 solar radiuses, where pressure in a star, with the Sun radius, increases 25 times; pressure in a star, with a radius is twice more solar, increases 100 times.In a star with three radiuses of the Sun — 225 times more, and in a star with five radiuses of the Sun — 625 times more.That is, with increase in star radius, compression force of its depths is increasing, that increases the speed of nuclei synthesis and increases the probability of heavy-nuclei synthesis.

Increase in the sizes of a star influences on the synthesis speed, not only because of pressure increasing in a star, but also because of star volume increasing.Star volume increasing allows to increase quantity of the nuclei, participating in synthesis.This increasing already has cubic dependence, as shown in schedule № G-4.2. So, at star radius increasing 3 times, star volume is increasing 27 times; at star radius increasing 4 times, volume is increasing 64 times; at increasing 5 times, volume is increasing 125 times.

Therefore, at increase in the star sizes, there matter compression pressure is increasing, into its depths and the amount of matter, participating in synthesis, is also increasing.Increase in pressure of compression and increase in amount of matter, participating in synthesis leads to increase in speed of nuclei synthesis and to increase in more heavy-nuclei synthesis.Increase in synthesis speed in a star reduces time of its life, and increase in heavy-nuclei amount brings their mass to critical.The amount of heavy-nuclei, in stars with a large masses, are exceeded critical mass, that leads to collapse of a star.

Increase in star volume is increasing dynamic pressure in a star and amount of matter, participating in synthesis. It leads to faster combustion of nuclear fuel (hydrogen), and reduces star life time. Increase in synthesis speed of heavy-nuclei (atoms) is increasing mass and speed of transuranium elements accumulation in a star core (in the white dwarf). Increase in mass of transuranium elements is increasing a over critical of transuranium mass in a star core.

Increase in overcritical of transuranium mass in a star core is increasing the power of the white dwarf nuclear explosion. Nuclear explosion (collapse) of the white dwarf, heavy stars, breaks the white dwarf and all its mass is released from explosion epicenter. The black hole is born inepicenter of nuclear explosion (collapse) of the white dwarf, heavy stars.

From this analysis, it is possible to conclude, that the form of a star — a sphere, is capable to concentrate and amplify energy processes. Spherical structure of a star as a nuclear reactor, contributes to synthesis of practically any elements of the chemical elements periodic table. Perhaps, the superheavy elements, located outside of the periodic table are also synthesized in stars.

On the other hand, with increase in star sizes, parameters of gas-plasma mixture are changed. In case of increase in parameters of gas-plasma mixture, at the increased allocation of energy in a star, there is a break of an active zone, and a part of gas-plasma mixture is releasing to outer space, through a star dark spots.

Dark spots on a star surface are automatic control bodies of thermodynamic and probably nuclear processes in the star.

In stars of small masses, the heavy-nuclei amount is low and not enough for starting of spontaneous chain fission reaction and the following explosion. Heavy and superheavy-nuclei amount of average and large masses stars in the white dwarf is enough for nuclear explosion.

Explosion power of the white dwarf in average masses stars is small and only a part of the white dwarf mass of this star is released as a result of this explosion. The white dwarf of large mass star has enough explosion power, for releasing all mass of the white dwarf of a star from explosion epicenter. Black hole remains at the explosion place of white dwarf of large mass star.

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