Chapter 4

4.1. The Role of the Central Black Hole in Galaxy Structure

Gas rotation in the accretion disks of black holes occurs at enormous linear speeds. The speed of gas motion in the accretion disk of a black hole reaches 170,000 km/s. The accretion disk of a black hole is essentially an accelerator of matter, or a huge "collider." In this accretion disk—"collider," thermonuclear fusion is possible. This is confirmed by experiments conducted in particle accelerators under terrestrial conditions.

According to Bernoulli's principle, the enormous speed of gas motion creates an enormous suction force, which forms gas flows in cosmic space around the black hole. Gas flows created by the black hole move at high speeds and draw gas from the surrounding cosmic space into their flows, creating areas of reduced pressure around the black hole. Around the black hole, areas of both increased and reduced gas concentration form. An interesting fact is that increased gas concentration in a flow creates reduced pressure at its boundaries.

In the accretion disk of a black hole, both suction forces and centrifugal forces act on gas and dust. If the suction force strives to draw gas and dust into the accretion disk, then the centrifugal force strives to destroy, tear apart the accretion disk, eject gas and dust from it. The processes occurring in accretion disks are examined in detail in other articles and sections of "Analytical Astrophysics."

In the accretion disk of a black hole, by analogy with tornadoes, cyclones, gas vortices, circular motion of the gas flow occurs. The gas flow moves at enormous speed and draws atoms of gas and dust, possibly also cosmic objects, from the surrounding cosmic space into its flow. As long as gas atoms and dust are independent, the suction force holds them in the gas flow of the accretion disk. Upon reaching some critical parameters in the accretion disk, stars form from gas and dust. From light atoms and particles, stars of large mass form. Having formed from the smallest particles, a star becomes an independent object with enormous mass. Centrifugal force increases with increasing object mass. Nuclear reactions occur in the formed star. The star surrounds itself with a plasma bubble, a heliosphere. This plasma bubble partially or fully neutralizes the effect of the suction force on the star still located in the accretion disk. Under the influence of centrifugal force, stars formed in the accretion disk exit it or tear the parent accretion disk apart. Possibly, this process is accompanied by additional dynamic processes. Possibly, this is how stars are born in a black hole. For such a forceful exit from the accretion disk, a star needs large mass and high motion velocity, i.e., large momentum. Large mass is necessary for these stars to increase centrifugal force and to create a powerful stellar heliosphere, which neutralizes the suction force of the accretion disk. The accretion disk, while sucking in gas, creates gas flows, and while pushing out gas packed into stars, forms stellar clusters and galaxies. A galaxy is a union of stars linked by the space of their birth.

The star formation process with the participation of a black hole and its accretion disk repeats many times. A globular star cluster forms around the black hole. Further star formation transforms the globular star cluster into an elliptical galaxy.

The evolution of an elliptical galaxy transforms it into a disk, then a spiral galaxy. Further galaxy evolution transforms it into a variety of peculiar galaxies, into an "aging" peculiar galaxy. Such a variety of peculiar galaxies corresponds to the stage of aging and "dying" of a galaxy. In such an "aging" galaxy, star formation decreases and stops. After the aging and "dying" of the remaining stars, the galaxy ceases to exist.

- Let's predict the logical chains of evolution of high-mass stars in a galaxy and the evolution of galaxies in a galaxy cluster.

At the initial stage of its evolution, a black hole forms and ejects into cosmic space stars of medium and large mass, halo stars.

- A quasar is an active galactic nucleus. It is a black hole at the galactic center where active star formation occurs. Possibly, star formation also occurs around the black hole, as enormous masses of gas are concentrated in this region of cosmic space.

Possibly, a blazar and a quasar differ not only in the quantity of star formation but also in the sizes of the zones where star formation occurs. Possibly, star formation in the black hole at the galactic center begins as a blazar in the accretion disk and transitions to the stage of a quasar, capturing space around the black hole, around the blazar. Possibly, after ejecting another batch of stars into cosmic space, the quasar transitions to the stage of a blazar.

Possibly, at the initial stage of its life, the black hole at the galactic center forms stars of medium mass. That is, the majority of stars born in the center of a young galaxy are stars of medium mass. And stars of large mass are produced less by the black hole in a young elliptical galaxy.

Possibly, after the formation of the galaxy's gas disk, the production of high-mass stars increases in the central black hole. The galaxy, as a "gas compressor," transitions from a single-stage model to a two-stage model. That is, the elliptical galaxy becomes a disk galaxy. Technically, this can be explained by the appearance of an additional stage of cosmic gas compression, additional backpressure and compaction of gas flows entering the accretion disk. Compaction and backpressure of gas flows occur in the gas disk of the galactic disk.

But it is not important when high-mass stars form; it is important that they are formed and created by the black hole at the galactic center.

4.2. High-Mass Stars as Elements of Universe Evolution

Galaxy formation begins with the formation and birth of the first stars. These stars form at the galactic center in the black hole. After star formation, the black hole pushes them out into cosmic space. Why?

These stars differ from stars of the galactic disk and arms. The mass and velocity of halo stars are greater than the mass and velocity of disk and arm stars. That is, the momentum of halo stars is greater than the momentum of disk and arm stars. Why? Does any logical explanation for these facts exist?

Let's trace the evolution of these stars several steps ahead.
A high-mass star evolves either into a neutron star or a black hole.

- A neutron star contains a large amount of heavy and transuranic chemical elements. Neutron stars evolve and transform into terrestrial planets. Terrestrial planets have high specific mass. These planets are saturated with the entire spectrum of chemical elements. Heavy chemical elements are necessary for the emergence and evolution of life. Terrestrial planets, by their chemical composition, are favorable for the emergence and evolution of biological life.

- A black hole can evolve either into a star or into a galaxy, passing through the stage of a globular star cluster.

Black holes, under favorable conditions, form globular star clusters around themselves. These globular star clusters, under favorable conditions in the surrounding cosmic space, evolve into galaxies (into elliptical galaxies).

Precisely the production of black holes in cosmic space prolongs the evolution of the material universe.
Black holes are the embryos of future galaxies, whose birth was already laid down in high-mass stars.
That is, high-mass stars are the "seeds" of the universe. From these "seeds" of the universe, planets and galaxies will be born.

Consequently, black holes located at galactic centers, through high-mass stars, "sow" in cosmic space terrestrial planets, cores of future stars, and cores of future galaxies. Cores of future galaxies are black holes from which galaxies and stars will form.
That is, high-mass stars are elements of the evolution of the universe itself.

Possibly, neutron stars and other stellar remnants can participate in the formation of young stars in galactic disks and arms. That is, the cores of young stars in gas flows of galactic disks and arms may turn out to be remnants of "dead" stars.
Planets produced by low-mass stars are elements of the evolution of matter in the universe; these are the cores of unborn stars. Planets are the cores of "dead" stars and the cores of unborn stars.

The evolution and structure of galaxies must be studied and analyzed both in the stellar and gas dimensions. Evolution of a galaxy in the stellar dimension is impossible without evolution of the galaxy in the gas dimension.

(12) Figure # 4.1.

  (13) Figure # 4.2.                (14) Figure # 4.3.

In Figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, the first photographs of black holes are depicted. The misunderstanding of black hole physics in modern astrophysics is based on the erroneous application of the gravitational concept in theories about black holes. A lack of research material does not allow for a qualified analytical study to be conducted. But possibly, in the photographs of black holes, processes of star formation in accretion disks are manifested.

4.3. In the Accretion Disk of a Black Hole

This article presents a prediction of physical events during the formation and birth of stars in an accretion disk. (For halo stars and stars born in the galactic center with the participation of a black hole's accretion disk.)

A star forms and consists of gas and dust. Being in the zone of influence of a black hole, a star is under its influence or may fall under this influence.
At the galactic center, in the zone of influence of the parent black hole, star formation and birth occur. In this zone of black hole influence, a probability exists for star rebirth, loss of part of its mass, merger with another star.

At what moment in time can it be considered that a star is born?
At the moment of star formation or at the moment of its ejection from the area of black hole influence?

The birth of a star is the moment it gains "independence" from the influence of the parent black hole. More precisely, the birth of a star is the moment the connection between the star and the parent black hole is broken. Possibly, this moment of star birth in the galactic center is accompanied by powerful (explosive) dynamic processes. Everything is like with people. Possibly, this process of separating stars from the parent black hole occurs under the influence of centrifugal forces acting in the accretion disk.

Laws of physics exist that hinder the spontaneous thermonuclear fusion of atomic nuclei of chemical elements. But humans have managed to bypass these laws of physics and have learned to synthesize chemical elements. By what methods do humans synthesize chemical elements?
Humans use two methods of synthesizing chemical elements.

- The first method—"hydrogen bomb." Compression of light chemical elements in a confined volume.

- The second method—"particle accelerators," "collider." Charged particles and atomic nuclei are accelerated to high speeds and strike a stationary target.

What methods of synthesizing atomic nuclei of chemical elements are used by "nature" in cosmic space?

- Star. The structure of a star conceptually and fundamentally corresponds to the structure of a "hydrogen bomb."

- Accretion disk. The structure of an accretion disk, both conceptually and fundamentally, corresponds to the structure of particle accelerators and a "collider."

An accretion disk is an accelerator of gas particles in which stars are formed and born. In particle accelerators created by humans, charged particles, electrons, protons, atomic nuclei are accelerated. In an accretion disk, both charged and uncharged particles, including neutrons, are accelerated. The participation of neutrons in synthesis lowers the threshold of thermonuclear fusion.

In the accretion disks of black holes, the speed of gas and dust particle motion reaches 170,000 km/s. Consequently, the accretion disks of black holes, neutron stars, white dwarfs are natural accelerators of gas and dust particles of cosmic space.

When considering the star formation process, the necessity arises for analyzing and predicting events occurring in accretion disks.
Analysis and prediction of events occurring in accretion disks will help understand the physical processes occurring in galaxies.

Halo stars have large masses and high motion velocities, unlike disk and arm stars. Why?
There must be a physical reason for such a difference in parameters between stars in the same galaxy. Let's try to find these physical reasons.

The initial conditions of star birth in a black hole and in gas flows of galactic disks and arms are different.
In galactic disks and arms, stars are born under conditions of a stationary moving gas flow. The kinematics of stars in such flows is calmer and more stable, inherited from the gas flow. Gas flows of the galactic disk and arms are also accelerators of gas particles. The mass of stars born in gas flows of disks and arms is not large. Possibly, in the formation of disk and arm stars of galaxies, remnants of already "dead" stars participated. In stationary gas flows of galaxies, high-mass stars do not form.

In the black hole at the galactic center, stars with large masses and high velocities are formed and born. Stars with large masses are born, in most cases, in pairs and more. Let's consider the physical conditions under which stars with large masses and high velocities are born.

The accretion disk of a black hole at the galactic center is a cosmic gas tornado. The speed of gas motion in the accretion disk of a black hole at the galactic center reaches 170,000 km/s. The motion of a gas flow at such speed creates a suction force into its gas flow. This suction force draws gas and dust from the surrounding cosmic space into the accretion disk. The accretion disk of a black hole is a huge cyclonic gas flow that moves at enormous speed along a closed circular path. Since the gas flow of the accretion disk moves along a closed circular path, not only the suction force but also centrifugal force must act on the atoms, molecules, and particles of the accretion disk. The speed of gas flow motion in the accretion disk is enormous. Consequently, the action of centrifugal force on a particle should also be enormous.

1. But... the mass of atoms, molecules, and particles is very small, which reduces the value of centrifugal force acting on these particles.

2. But... the accretion disk has enormous size, and even over large intervals of the accretion disk's gas flow path, the curvature of this path can be neglected.

That is, the motion of particles in the gas flow of the accretion disk can be considered rectilinear. And the influence of centrifugal force on gas and dust particles is negligible. The small mass of particles and the enormous circulation path of the gas flow reduce the value of centrifugal force.

But then how are halo stars formed, born, and leave the black hole?

Let's predict the physical processes and events occurring in the accretion disk of a black hole.

The mass of the accretion disk increases by drawing gas and dust from cosmic space into it. The enormous speed of the gas flow makes it turbulent. The density of the accretion disk constantly increases. The increase in accretion disk mass cannot occur infinitely. In the accretion disk of the central black hole, possibly, the formation and appearance of additional circulation of gas flows occurs.
The evolution of the accretion disk proceeds through physical-dynamic processes, high rotation speed, turbulence of the gas flow, increase in its mass, temperature, and density.

Physical parameters in the accretion disk tend to critical values.

In the accretion disk, stars form from gas. And stars already have large sizes and large masses. The formation and motion of stars inside the accretion disk is not yet studied. But considering the large sizes and masses of stars born in the black hole at the galactic center, one can predict the processes occurring in the accretion disk. It is quite realistic that massive stars, under the influence of their own gravity, before leaving the parent black hole, grouped into stellar systems. A stellar system has large size and mass, consisting of the sum of the masses of several massive stars. A massive star or stellar system consisting of two or more stars are already integral, large, and massive objects. On this huge, massive, and integral object, centrifugal force already exerts its influence.

Let's calculate the centrifugal forces acting on different objects located in the accretion disk of a black hole.

- Hydrogen atom—with mass m = 1.66·10⁻²⁷ kg.

- Star—with solar mass M = 1.9891·10³⁰ kg.

- Star—with mass of one hundred solar masses M₁₀₀ = 1.9891·10³² kg.

- Radius of the accretion disk at the galactic center, according to the latest research, is

Rac = 52.4 light-days = 0.14356 light-years = 1.36·10¹² km = 1.36·10¹⁵ m.

- Speed of gas and dust particle motion in the accretion disk reaches V = 170,000 km/s = 170·10⁶ m/s.

Let's calculate the centrifugal force in the accretion disk acting on a hydrogen atom, a star with solar mass, and a star with mass of 100 solar masses, using the formula.

Centrifugal force:

- for a hydrogen atom—3.57·10⁻² N.

- for a star with solar mass—4.25·10³¹ N.

- for a star with one hundred solar masses—4.25·10³³ N.

As can be seen from the calculations of centrifugal forces, despite the very high speed of gas particle motion in the accretion disk, the centrifugal force for hydrogen atoms is insignificant. With the formation of stars from gas particles in the accretion disk, centrifugal force increases significantly.

But a star is a gaseous object; the behavior of such objects under the influence of different forces is not yet studied.

- Possibly, the formation of stars in an accretion disk is connected to the formation of a core within the star itself. Possibly, only after the formation of a core within the star itself will this star be able to leave the parent black hole. And the effect of centrifugal force occurs on the star's core. And the star's core, leaving the accretion disk, pulls gas along with itself.

- Possibly, the star's core during formation in the accretion disk has a large volume, but it is formed from non-heavy chemical elements. Over a short period, a large amount of heavy chemical elements has not yet had time to be synthesized.

- Possibly, in the accretion disk, not stars but their cores are formed. Leaving the accretion disk, stellar cores take gas from the accretion disk with them.

- Possibly, one of the necessary conditions for star formation is the formation of a stellar core, which during life changes under the influence of nuclear processes within the star.

The greater the mass of a star or stellar system, the higher the value of centrifugal force. The higher the value of centrifugal force, the higher the value of the escape velocity of the star or stellar system from the parent black hole. Under the influence of centrifugal force, for a stellar system, the probability of exit from the accretion disk is higher than for a single star. And centrifugal force in its value is higher for more massive objects. Consequently, from the force field of a black hole, stellar systems will exit with greater probability than individual stars. But in the accretion disk, the suction force into the gas flow acts. And this force should act on stars leaving the accretion disk. But... During the formation and birth of a star, a plasma bubble, a heliosphere, forms around the star. More precisely, a star is born in a plasma bubble with a heliosphere. The star's heliosphere partially or fully neutralizes the effect of the suction force on the star. If a star has small mass, then its heliosphere will be weak, and the born star will be torn apart and absorbed by the moving gas flow of the accretion disk. Consequently, only stars with large and medium masses are capable of leaving the accretion disk of the parent black hole.

Stars with small masses are incapable of leaving the accretion disk of the parent black hole. That is, restrictive barriers by mass exist for stars born in the black hole at the galactic center.

But... Why, upon leaving the gas flow of the accretion disk, are these stars not torn apart by this flow? As happens with stars upon approaching a black hole. If we look at the diagram of an elliptical galaxy, we see that the black hole at the galactic center is surrounded by isophotes. These are stars of the same age, uniformly arranged around the parent black hole. And the closer to the black hole, the younger the stars in the isophotes. But it is very important that stars in isophotes uniformly surround the parent black hole. This speaks of the simultaneous exit of all stars from the accretion disk. Stars formed in the accretion disk of the black hole, upon exiting into cosmic space, tear the accretion disk, taking the majority of the mass of its gas. The mass of the accretion disk is zeroed or almost zeroed. The mass of the accretion disk zeroed, the forces acting within it also zeroed.

Possibly, a critical mass for the initiation of thermonuclear reaction exists, and this critical mass is less than the critical mass at which the accretion disk is destroyed.

The conflict of forces in the accretion disk lies in the fact that centrifugal force tries to destroy the accretion disk, eject gas into cosmic space. And the suction force compresses the accretion disk and increases its mass. In the conflict of forces, stars are born.

If the rotation speed of gas in the accretion disk is 170,000 km/s, and the accretion disk is not destroyed, then the suction force is greater than centrifugal force. Possibly, as a result of this conflict of forces, dynamic processes directed at forming stars in the accretion disk and at its destruction and ejection of stars into space are born.

During the motion of large gas masses in flows, physical processes favorable for the initiation of nuclear reactions occur.

4.4. Physics of Jet Formation

The physics of accretion disks was considered in the scientific research "Analytical Physics. Analytical Astrophysics." But an accretion disk is accompanied by the formation of twisting gas pillars. Similar gas pillars also form in cases of tornadoes in the atmospheres of Earth and planets. In the case of an accretion disk, these gas pillars are called "jets." It's time to understand the physics of this phenomenon.

Suction of gas into the accretion disk of a black hole from the space surrounding it.

(15) Figure # 4.4.

In Figure 4.4, an accretion disk is depicted. The gas flow in the accretion disk moves with angular velocity ω. The accretion disk divides the space surrounding it into three areas "A," "B," "C." Area "A," the inner area, is the space surrounded by the accretion disk. Modern astrophysicists consider the space in zone "A" to be a black hole. In modern astrophysics, it is erroneously believed that an enormous amount of dark matter is located in this zone.

But in this area of space, there is no dark matter. The mass of matter and gas in zone "A" in value tends to absolute vacuum. The space area "A" is isolated from cosmic space by the accretion disk. Molecules of gas and dust entering area "A" from the axial direction are drawn into the gas flow of the accretion disk into zone "B." In space area "A," reduced gas pressure, close in value to absolute physical vacuum, is maintained by the gas flow of the accretion disk.

Area "B" is the gas flow of the accretion disk, rotating at enormous linear speed and with a small angular velocity ω, as the radius of the accretion disk is very large.

Area "C" is the outer area of cosmic space surrounding the accretion disk of the black hole. Through area "C," the accretion disk is connected with the cosmic space of the universe. Into area "B," into the accretion disk, gas and dust from areas "A" and "C" are drawn. In Figure No. 4.4, the motion of gas from areas "A" and "C" into the accretion disk (into area "B") is shown. But the accretion disk cannot infinitely draw gas from cosmic space.

The accretion disk is not limited by a rigid casing.

Consequently, some forces must exist directed at forming the structure of a black hole having an accretion disk and a jet. And these forces must act in the structure of the accretion disk.

Since gas is drawn into the accretion disk from the inner zone "A" and the outer zone "C," then in zone "B" (in the accretion disk), these forces must meet. In Figure No. 4.5, the meeting of forces drawing gas from cosmic space into the accretion disk is shown. The meeting of the drawing gas flows occurs in zone "0" (in the zero zone), in this meeting zone, the jet forms. Force Fa—the force drawing gas from zone "A." Force Fc—the force drawing gas from zone "C." Zone "0"—the meeting zone, or the conflict zone of two drawing gas flows in the accretion disk. Since zone "C" is larger than zone "A," the mass of gas and force from the side of zone "C" will be greater than the mass of gas and force from the side of zone "A." Consequently, zone "0," the conflict zone, will be located closer to zone "A." And this is confirmed by facts.

                                   Diagram of the action of suction forces inside the gas flow of the accretion disk.

(16) Figure # 4.5

Let's consider diagrams of the accretion disk and jet, analyze the diagram of the accretion disk and jet in cross-section.

An accretion disk is a gas flow moving along a circular trajectory, or a cyclonic gas flow. Into this cyclonic gas flow, gas from cosmic space is drawn. Gas is drawn from the inner zone "A" and the outer zone "C." Drawing gas from opposite directions creates counter motion of gas flows inside the accretion disk. These counter gas flows collide in zone "0." Colliding in zone "0," these gas flows displace molecules of gas and dust from the accretion disk in the axial direction, forming a spiral gas flow—a jet, as shown in Figure No. 4.6. The kinematics of jet particles is formed from two components:

- kinematics of the cyclonic motion of the accretion disk's gas flow;

- and motion of gas particles in the axial direction under the influence of counter forces in the accretion disk.

Physics of jet formation. General diagram of the action of forces drawing gas and dust particles from cosmic space into the accretion disk. Action of suction forces inside the gas flow of the accretion disk.
(17) Figure # 4.6

That is, jets of accretion disks and gas pillars of tornadoes are formed and created by counter gas flows in accretion disks and gas flows of tornadoes. In the formation of jets of accretion disks and gas pillars of tornadoes, counter forces drawing matter from the surrounding space participate.

Force motion of gas and dust particles in the accretion disk is shown in Figure # 4.7.

Physics of jet formation. Diagram of the action of suction forces inside the gas flow of the accretion disk.
(18) Figure # 4.7

In Fig. 4.7, Fa—the force drawing matter into the gas flows of the accretion disk and jet from the side of zone "A." Fc—the force drawing matter into the gas flows of the accretion disk and jet from the side of zone "C." FB—the force having axial direction of action on gas flow particles. Force FB forms the jet and is a derivative force from the action of forces Fa and Fc. This force is directed along the jet from the accretion disk into cosmic space.

Jets of accretion disks of black holes isolate zone "A" from the penetration of gas from the surrounding environment. In the case of a tornado, isolation of the inner area of the tornado occurs by gas pillars. Such isolation of zone "A" maintains the existence of vacuum in this zone and increases the lifespan of the accretion disk. Analogous events occur with tornadoes under terrestrial conditions.

The rotating gas flow of a jet extends over an enormous distance from its accretion disk.
Let's consider the physics of jet propagation in cosmic space. A jet is a cyclonic gas flow propagating along the axis of rotation of its accretion disk. Propagation of the gas flow of the jet occurs from the accretion disk into cosmic space. That is, a jet is a spiral-shaped gas flow. Rotating around the axis, the gas flow of the jet draws gas from cosmic space into its flow. Similarly, as in the accretion disk, gas into the jet is drawn from zone "A" and zone "C." Under the action of forces Fa and Fc, in the jet, the drawing gas flows collide. But in the jet, there also exists force FB, directed from the accretion disk into cosmic space. Force FB and the circulation force form the gas flows of jets propagating from the accretion disk into cosmic space along the axis of rotation Fig. 4.8.

                  Forces acting during the formation and propagation of gas flows of jets.
(19) Figure # 4.8

Gas flows of jets are circulatory and under favorable conditions can generate accretion disks in cosmic space.

If on its path a jet encounters favorable conditions, then possibly a star will form in the gas flow of the jet. This is confirmed by space research. Herbig-Haro objects are confirmation of the possibility of jet formation of stars. Possibly, in the formations of stars by jets, remnants of already "dead" stars take part.

Jet of the black hole at the center of galaxy M87 in an image from the Chandra X-ray space telescope
NASA
(20) Figure # 4.9.

Tornado

In the case of a tornado, gas pillars are limited in space by the Earth's surface, landscape. The configuration of the landscape of the area through which a tornado passes is capable of changing the parameters of this tornado (Fig. 4.10, Fig. 4.11, a and b). Gas flows born in the tornado and reflected from the Earth's surface can change the speed of the gas flows of the tornado itself, slowing, accelerating, or even stopping the tornado itself. This is confirmed by facts.

(21) Figure # 4.10

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