1.2. Analysis of Velocity Changes in Stars and Their Remnants.

The emission of part of its mass into cosmic space by a star increases that star's velocity of motion.

In the section "Dark energy," in the first part of this chapter, an energy calculation was made confirming the physical regularity of the acceleration of stars' motion. That is, the acceleration of stars' motion and the acceleration of the universe's expansion are PHYSICALLY LAWFUL! This physical regularity is built into the physical-energy design of a star. A star is an element of a galaxy's design. In a galaxy, stars of the disk and arms move around the galaxy's center; halo stars move in various directions. The motion of halo stars, high-velocity stars, runaway stars, and globular clusters is directed away from the galaxy's center. The motion of gas is directed toward the galaxy's center, toward the black hole. Gas from cosmic space collects in the galaxy. In the galaxy, stars are formed from gas, and these stars are ejected back into cosmic space. The galaxy's mechanism is designed such that on a stellar scale, the galaxy expands (halo stars), while on a gas scale, the galaxy contracts. Stars in galactic disks and arms have kinematics similar to the gas flows in which they were born; consequently, their motion is directed along a converging spiral toward the galaxy's center.

A galaxy is an element of the universe's design, a cluster of the universe. The universe is "woven" into a "network" of galactic "filaments." At the basis of this entire huge and mysterious mechanism of the material world's evolution lies a black hole as the engine of the universe's evolution, and a star as the mechanism of matter's evolution. And if these two mechanisms are stopped or "assembled" incorrectly, the Universe will turn into infinite emptiness.

Modern cosmology is based on the concept of "spontaneous combination of matter," which formed the Universe.

Questions arise:

- Is such spontaneous, multiple cloning of isomorphic objects and processes possible simultaneously in a vast space?

- Is such spontaneous cloning possible over an infinite time interval?

- Is such spontaneous multiple cloning of nuclear processes possible simultaneously in a vast space and over an infinite time interval?

- Is such spontaneous cloning in the universe possible without the participation of Mind???

In the design of stars, galaxies, and the Universe, as well as in the process of matter's evolution, we see the presence of Mind.

In the design of every object in the universe, and in the physical-chemical processes in which these objects participate, simplicity, multifunctionality, energy capacity, and economy are constructively and technologically embedded. A clear example of all these properties is a star.

At birth, a star receives momentum, which it strives to preserve not only throughout its life but also to pass on to its remnants after "death." This momentum is equal to the product of the star's mass and its velocity.

Iz = Mz . Vz = const                      (1.1)

The value of the star's momentum is constant, or tends to preserve a constant value in the absence of external influences on the star. If any parameter of formula (1.1) changes, then axiomatically, the second parameter must change simultaneously. The change in the second parameter is inversely proportional to the change in the first parameter. By physical properties, a change in the star's mass can lead to a change in its velocity, but a change in the star's velocity cannot lead to a change in its mass. That is, the change in the star's mass is primary, and the change in the star's velocity is a derivative of the change in its mass. However, a change in velocity without a change in mass can only occur under the influence of an external force.

The change in mass occurs under the influence of internal processes in the star. That is, the change in the star's velocity occurs due to the change in its mass, and the change in the star's mass occurs under the influence of internal processes in the star. Consequently, the change in the star's velocity occurs under the influence of internal processes in the star, as a consequence of the change in its mass.

Physically-energetically, a star is designed so that its motion in space not only does not experience environmental resistance but also moves with acceleration. A star, emitting part of its mass into cosmic space, creates a plasma bubble, a heliosphere, around itself. The star moves while being inside this plasma bubble, in the heliosphere. More precisely, the star moves not in cosmic space but in a plasma bubble. And its plasma bubble moves in cosmic space. The star's heliosphere takes upon itself the impact of environmental resistance forces, neutralizing these forces. Throughout its life, the star emits energy, forming a heliosphere around itself.

This energy is equal to Ei = Δm·c²,

where Δm – mass emitted from the star as energy;
c – speed of light.

The emission of energy into cosmic space is accompanied by the star losing part of its mass. The increase in the star's velocity occurs as a derivative process from the star's mass loss. Throughout its life, the star loses part of its mass to energy emission. Consequently, its velocity should increase throughout its life!

In the formula I = M·V, factor M constantly decreases, and since I = Const, factor V – the star's velocity – constantly increases. The star moves with acceleration throughout its life.

The acceleration of the universe's expansion is a derivative process from the accelerated motion of stars. Theoretical and mathematical justification for the accelerated motion of stars has been found.

But there is also a second factor in the acceleration of the Universe – the acceleration of galaxies. This factor will be considered later (below).

And what do the facts say? Does the acceleration of stars' motion in cosmic space actually exist?

The answer to this question will allow us to unravel the mystery of the accelerated expansion of the universe. To answer this question, it is necessary to conduct an analytical study of the kinematics of stars and their remnants.

Scientific studies confirm the fact of the acceleration of stars' motion, but despite these confirmations, let's conduct our own study.

Let's predict the physical regularity of changes in the velocities of stars' motion at different periods of life. That is, predict how the velocity of stars' motion should change according to the laws of physics. And let's compare our predictions with research data. The law of conservation of momentum states that a star emitting part of its mass into cosmic space increases that star's velocity of motion. Analysis of actual research data on the motion of stars in our and other galaxies confirms this conclusion.

Given identical or similar physical parameters of stars and the space around them, older stars have higher velocities than younger stars. But the chain of velocity increase does not end with old stars! After the "death" of a star, the chain of transformations continues. A white dwarf, collapse, black hole or neutron star, planet – this is the chain of stellar evolution after their "death." Throughout this chain of events, stellar remnants lose mass. Consequently, the velocity of motion of stellar remnants should be higher than the velocities of the parent stars. That is, the velocity of a white dwarf should be higher than the velocity of the red giant, the parent star. After the collapse of a white dwarf, for a neutron star or black hole, the velocity of motion should be higher than that of the white dwarf.

If the velocities of stellar remnants are higher than the velocities of the parent stars, then the cause of the acceleration of stars and their remnants is the loss of part of their mass by these objects. Black holes are cosmic gas vortices in which stars are formed, and their physics and kinematics are not yet sufficiently studied.

However, space researchers in galaxy J0437+2456 have discovered a supermassive black hole with a velocity of 4810 km/s. (Source: https://nplus1.ru/news/2021/03/17/moving-bh ; The Astrophysical Journal.)

Mass loss in the transformation chain of stellar remnants proves that no enormous masses of matter exist in neutron stars and black holes. After a white dwarf explosion, the epicenter always contains less mass of matter than before the explosion. This fact excludes the existence of dark matter.

After the collapse of a white dwarf, the velocity of a neutron star should be higher than the velocities of the parent star and its white dwarf. During the collapse of a white dwarf, the effect of jet propulsion is additionally imposed on the motion of the neutron star. At analogous processes in binary star systems and more, the velocity of the neutron star should increase manyfold.

The general scheme of motion for a star and its remnants should be as follows (if birth conditions are identical):

- Young stars have the lowest velocity;

- With increasing star age, its velocity increases;

- A white dwarf's velocity should be higher than the velocity of the parent star;

- A neutron star should have a velocity much higher than that of its white dwarf. Because, during the collapse of a white dwarf, a nuclear explosion ejects a huge mass at enormous velocity. And the effect of jet propulsion is superimposed on the motion of the stellar remnants.

- A planet inherits velocity and motion parameters from a white dwarf or neutron star. This scenario explains the presence of high velocities in planets, asteroids, and comets.

And what do the facts say?

Let's conduct research on the velocities of motion of stars, white dwarfs, and neutron stars. 

1.2.1 Study of Stellar Velocities in a Galaxy.

We defined three groups of stars in a galaxy for analytical study:

1. Stars born in gas flows of the disk, in arms, and in the bar. "Population I."

2. Stars born in the galaxy's center (in the region of the black hole's action), stars of elliptical galaxies and halos of disk and spiral galaxies. "Population II."

3. Stars born in globular clusters – recorded in "Population II," although globular clusters can be separated into a distinct population from which new galaxies are formed and born.

1. Stars born in gas flows of the disk, arms, and bar.

First group, stars of the galactic disk and arms.
System of stars of galactic disks and arms.

The system of stars in galactic disks and arms is born and formed within the planar volume of gas flows. These gas and dust flows are formed inside an old elliptical galaxy. Visually, this flat component of the galaxy cuts right through the central part of the elliptical galaxy.

Young stars in elliptical galaxies and halos in disk and spiral

galaxies are located closer to the center.

In the planar component of disk and spiral galaxies, young stars

are located farther from the center, closer to the periphery, near the outermost stars of the arms.

Precisely because of such formation of stellar systems in galaxies, the structure of irregular, peculiar galaxies is incomprehensible to modern astrophysicists. Although peculiar

galaxies are remnants of dying (spiral) galaxies.

Let's examine the stellar structure of disk and spiral galaxies from kinematic perspectives.

Let's predict the distribution of stellar velocities considering their age data.

In the planar component, young stars should be located farther from the galactic center, closer to the outermost stars of the disk and arms. And the velocity of stars in the disk and arms of a galaxy should decrease with increasing distance from the galactic center.

Such distribution of velocities in the disk and arms of a galaxy is justified by the physical dependence of a star's motion acceleration on its age.

This kinematic prediction is made based on the effect of acceleration of stars' motion with increasing age. That is, the law of conservation of a star's momentum should increase the star's velocity with increasing age. In modern astrophysics, this effect is attributed to the action of dark energy.

Let's compare our kinematic prediction of stellar motion in a disk and spiral galaxy with research data.

In the group of stars in the disk and arms, younger stars are located farther from the galactic center. This is explained by the time process of forming the stellar disk and arms, which proceeds from the galactic center to the periphery. That is, stars near the galactic center were formed earlier and are older in age.

Such a time function of star placement is explained by a similar temporal formation of gas flows in the galaxy's disk and arms. That is, the formation and growth of gas flows in galactic disks and arms occur from regions located closer to the galactic centers. Over time, the gas flow increases from the center to the periphery. However, gas motion within the flow occurs from the periphery to the center. In the galaxy's center is a black hole; it formed these gas flows, and they are directed precisely toward it. In this growing gas flow, star formation occurs in the same temporal (age) sequence as the growth of the gas flow, from the center to the periphery.

In this case, the age of stars in galactic disks and arms decreases with increasing distance from their center.

In the second group, the opposite placement of stars is observed.

The kinematics of stars in the galactic disk and spiral arms is more stationary (steady), inherited from the kinematics of the gas stream in which they were born. The velocity of stellar motion decreases with increasing distance from the galaxy's center.

Possibly, it is the difference in velocities between stars, depending on their age, that forms galactic spiral arms. Older stars with higher velocities are located closer to the galaxy's center. Farther from the center lie younger stars with lower velocities of motion.

The factor of the time interval in the formation of stars in the disk and arms is superimposed on the factor of stellar velocity dispersion, which depends on their age. The superposition of these two factors — affecting both star birth and their kinematics over time — shapes the appearance of the disk and arms in the spatial distribution of stars within galaxies.

In the first group of stars – stars are young, have less mass than stars of the second group. These stars move in circular trajectories. The velocity of these stars and their age decrease with increasing distance from the galactic center.

In the kinematics of these two groups of stars, a general pattern is observed, which manifests when analyzing stars within groups with similar kinematic characteristics. With increasing stellar age, their velocity increases.

The observed rotation curve of spiral galaxy NGC 157 and the results of its modeling (separation into components). The contribution of the dark halo becomes predominant only at very large distances from the center. The galaxy's optical radius is less than 15 kpc.

Source: astronet.ru "Physics of Galaxies and Galactic Nuclei" 12.12.2005 "Soros Encyclopedia"

(2) Figure # 1.1

On the graph Fig. # 1.1-B, the velocity curve for stars in the galactic disk is shown. The rotation velocity of stars decreases with increasing distance from the center, but the age of stars in the disk also decreases with increasing distance from the center. This fact points to the dependence of stellar velocity on age.

2. Stars born in the galactic center.

"Stars in the halo move along highly elongated orbits, sometimes moving away from the galactic center, sometimes approaching it. Stellar velocities reach 200-300 kilometers

per second. Such velocities in galaxies are common and related to their large masses. Large mass allows stars to move very quickly" Source: "Motion of Stars in the Galaxy," ALEXEY RASTORGUEV https://postnauka.org/video/36218

For halo stars born in the galactic center to reach the galaxy's periphery, a large period of time is necessary. Consequently, with increasing distance from the galactic center, the age of halo stars increases. But the velocity of halo stars and their remnants also increase with increasing distance from the galactic center.

In elliptical galaxies, young stars are located closer to the galactic center; consequently, the velocity of stars near the galactic center should be lower and increase with increasing distance from the center (with increasing radius). Stars belonging to the elliptical component of disk and spiral galaxies are halo stars. The kinematics of stars in the elliptical component of disk and spiral galaxies and their distribution in galactic space fully correspond to the kinematics and distribution of stars in elliptical galaxies. This fact proves that disk and spiral galaxies form inside elliptical galaxies.

In elliptical galaxies, young stars are located closer to the galactic center; consequently, the velocity of stars near the galactic center should be lower and increase with increasing distance from the center (with increasing radius). Stars belonging to the elliptical component of disk and spiral galaxies are halo stars. The kinematics of stars in the elliptical component of disk and spiral galaxies and their distribution in galactic space fully correspond to the kinematics and distribution of stars in elliptical galaxies. This fact proves that disk and spiral galaxies form inside elliptical galaxies. In the second group of stars – stars have large masses, move in the halo, chaotically, along elongated trajectories. These stars are old and move at 200 – 300 km/s and faster. With increasing distance from the galactic center, not only their age but also their velocity increases.

Velocity of motion is higher for stars with larger mass.

In our galaxy, 600 stars have been discovered moving faster than 445 km/s.

Star SDSSJO90745.0+024507 moves from the center of the Milky Way at a speed of 709 km/s. In our galaxy, about 1000 such objects are known.

High stellar velocities indicate dynamic and "explosive" impact on the star. The ejection of stars from the black hole at the galactic center and the collapse of a supernova in binary (and more) star systems are accompanied by dynamic processes, including explosive ones.

Stars of elliptical galaxies and halo stars of disk and spiral galaxies are formed and born in gas flows of the black hole's accretion disk. These stars inherit the direction and kinematics of motion from the gas flow of the accretion disk. The motion of these stars is directed away from the galactic center. Possibly, the motion of second-group stars (Population II) is influenced by both centrifugal forces of the accretion disk and the dynamic momentum received at birth.

With increasing rotation radius, the angular component of velocity may decrease. There is a probability that several physical factors influence a star's velocity characteristics. Moving away from the galactic center decreases the star's angular velocity, while increasing age increases its linear velocity.

Dynamic, "explosive" impact on a star also occurs during the collapse of a supernova in the case of a binary or more star system. During a supernova collapse, the mass of the binary (or more) star system decreases, which, according to the law of conservation of momentum, should increase that system's velocity.

Halos are formed by old stars. Young stars are located in the galactic disk and arms. This fact indicates that the elliptical component of disk and spiral galaxies is much older than the stars of the disk and spirals. This confirms the hypothesis of stellar disk and spiral formation inside an elliptical galaxy.

High-mass stars move faster in cosmic space. A star is not a solid body; a star is an energetic object.

The larger the star, the more energy it emits into cosmic space. The more energy a star emits into cosmic space, the more mass it loses. The more mass a star loses, the greater the acceleration of its motion.

Let's examine this process in more detail.

With increasing stellar mass, its size increases. Energy generation of the star increases. The star's emission of energy into cosmic space increases. Energy generation occurs in the star's volume, while energy emission occurs from its surface. That is, energy production by a star occurs in a volume that is in cubic dependence on the star's radius.

And energy emission by the star occurs from its surface, which is in quadratic dependence on the star's radius. An imbalance exists in a star between energy production and emission. And the larger the star, the greater the imbalance. More energy is produced than is emitted into cosmic space. Excess energy accumulates in the star's volume, which must be discharged into space.

This discharge of energy occurs through dark spots. The ejection or emission of energy is the star ejecting part of its mass into space. Decreasing the star's mass axiomatically and simultaneously increases its velocity.

The larger the star's mass, the larger its volume where energy is produced. But with increasing mass, the star's surface area also increases, the surface of energy emission into cosmic space. The imbalance between energy production and emission also increases. The larger the star's mass, the more energy and mass it emits into cosmic space. The more mass a star loses, the faster it moves.

The considered facts of velocity changes in halo stars, disk and arm stars of galaxies indicate the dependence of stellar velocity on age. In halos, with increasing distance from the galactic center, both the age of stars and their velocity increase.

In stellar disks and arms of galaxies, with increasing distance from the galactic center, both the age of stars and their velocity decrease.

Conclusion:

With increasing age, the velocity of stars increases.

This regularity was noticed by space researchers as early as the 1970s.

Researchers Vil'en (1977), Holmberg, Nordetrem and Anderson (2007), Aumer and Binney (2009) discovered that throughout the lives of stars, the dispersion of their velocities constantly increases, following a power law.

Our prediction of increasing stellar velocity with increasing age is confirmed by research material.

3. Stars born in globular clusters.

The third group of stars, stars of globular clusters, is of great interest.

The kinematics of globular clusters is analogous to the kinematics of the second group of stars, halo stars. A characteristic feature of this group's kinematics is that each group as a whole move similarly to the motion of 2nd group stars (halo stars). That is, the entire group moves like a 2nd group star.

Such motion and placement of these groups in a galaxy indicates that:

• There is a black hole at the center of a globular cluster.

The correct geometric form of globular clusters indicates that at the center of this cluster is a star formation source, a black hole. This black hole collects gas from space, forms stars from this gas, and ejects them into galactic space. After repeated star formation and ejection into space, a globular cluster forms around the black hole.

• The kinematics of the entire star group in a globular cluster is analogous to the kinematics of an individual second-group star.

This fact indicates that the progenitor of this entire star group was a 2nd group star (halo star) with large mass.

That is, the black hole at the center of a globular cluster was formed as a result of the collapse of a halo star (or elliptical galaxy star) that had large mass. Stars, parents of black holes in globular clusters, were born in the galactic center, in the region of the central black hole. And the kinematics of this star group was inherited from the parent second-group star.

The kinematics of globular cluster motion is of huge research interest. From these star clusters, galaxies will be formed surrounding their parent galaxy, taking gas from it to form their own stars. In the parent galaxy, star formation will decrease and eventually cease due to lack of gas.

Daughter galaxies take gas from the parent galaxy, dooming their "mother" to "starvation." After the cessation of star formation and the "death" of a large part of its stars, the parent galaxy will transition to the stage of an irregular, peculiar galaxy.

The third component, stars of globular clusters, are derivatives of elliptical galaxy stars or halo stars of disk or spiral galaxies. We have dealt with the dependence of stellar velocity on age. But how do stellar remnants behave???

1.2.2 Study of White Dwarf Velocities in a Galaxy.

Let's move to the kinematics of white dwarfs.

There are no reliable algorithms for determining the age of white dwarfs yet. Determining the age of a white dwarf by its mass and surface temperature contains errors. To determine a white dwarf's age, knowledge of white dwarf physics is necessary. Unfortunately, modern theoretical astrophysics lacks knowledge of white dwarf physics. – The physics of processes occurring in white dwarfs and neutron stars is the physical-chemical reactions and processes occurring in the slagged, spent nuclear fuel of the "Star" nuclear reactor. This spent nuclear fuel contains isotopes of all chemical elements of the periodic table. The larger the white dwarf's mass, the higher the content of heavy isotopes of chemical elements. A white dwarf is radioactive; nuclear reactions occur within it, releasing heat. Precisely this heat release from nuclear reactions raises the white dwarf's surface temperature. And precisely this temperature increase prevents determining the white dwarf's age. A star is a nuclear reactor. In a white dwarf, in the core of a "dead" star, residual nuclear reactions of decay, fission, and even synthesis occur. Nuclear reactions release energy, including thermal energy, which raises the white dwarf's temperature and its surface. Energy release occurs in the white dwarf's volume, while emission of this energy occurs from the surface. An imbalance exists between production and emission of energy. This imbalance can provoke ejections of matter from the white dwarf. These ejections of matter and energy emission can influence the white dwarf's velocity change.

With increasing white dwarf mass, energy release within it increases in a power-law dependence. This quantitative increase in energy release is due to the increase in spent nuclear fuel. But with increasing white dwarf mass, the mass of heavy and transuranic chemical elements also increases. Heavy and transuranic elements are an additional source of nuclear and thermal energy. Based on the listed physical properties of a white dwarf, determining its age is difficult, but developing a temporal algorithm for white dwarfs of similar mass is possible.

Studies of kinematics and velocity dispersion of white dwarfs located in our galaxy "Milky Way," in the region of the Sun, showed the following regularities:

- The "age-velocity" diagram reflects a slow increase in random velocities with age. Possibly, this velocity change is the result of mass loss in white dwarfs.
Examples of velocities.

- Velocity of white dwarf 2561, LSPM J1756+0931N, 324.9 km/s;

- Velocity dispersion of white dwarfs decreases with increasing white dwarf mass. It is assumed that parent stars of white dwarfs with larger masses live less, and their velocity dispersion is the same as that of young stars (19 km/s). Parent stars of white dwarfs with small masses live longer, and their velocity dispersion is the same as that of old stars that have lived longer (46 km/s).

- In white dwarfs, a physical connection between mass, age, and kinematics is observed, as with parent stars.

Conclusions:

Research on the kinematics of white dwarfs has shown:

- The velocities of white dwarfs are higher than those of their progenitor stars;

- The kinematics of white dwarfs are related to their age and mass. There is a correlation between the kinematics of white dwarfs, their mass, their age, and the velocity dispersion among them.

1.2.3 Velocities of Neutron Stars and Black Holes.

The acceleration of stars and their remnants is a consequence of the star losing part of its mass. In this chain of physical events, called "Dark Energy" by modern astrophysicists, the action of the physical law of conservation of momentum manifests itself. A star at birth receives an initial impulse, mass, and velocity I=MV, and throughout its evolution, it strives to preserve this impulse. But throughout its life, the star loses its mass. Losing mass, throughout its life, the star accelerates. These conclusions are confirmed by research material: stellar velocities increase with stellar age. The velocities of stellar remnants, however, exceed the velocities of parent stars by several times, indicating the objects' loss of large masses. Astrophysicists believe that a pulsar accelerates after a supernova collapse. The collapse of a supernova is a nuclear explosion that ejects a huge mass from the white dwarf (the core of the former star) into cosmic space. In the formula I=MV, factor M, mass, decreases manyfold, proportionally increasing V – the object's velocity. But during collapse, the effect of jet propulsion is superimposed on the object's velocity change. And this effect also relates to the law of conservation of momentum. The direction of mass ejection during a supernova collapse influences the neutron star's velocity and direction of motion. Observations of neutron stars have shown that neutron stars move at high velocities of 300-400 km/s. But even these high velocities are not the limit.

- Astronomers Werner Becker and Chung Yue Hui measured the velocity of neutron star RX J0822-4300. According to recent studies, its velocity is 1500 km/s.

- When studying pulsar J1124-5916 in a young supernova remnant, its velocity was measured to be V=612 km/s.
As can be seen from the analysis, neutron star velocities range from 300-600 km/s to 1500 km/s. The loss of a star's enormous mass is reflected in the change of factors in the momentum formula Star – Neutron star.
The acceleration of a neutron star is influenced by:

1. Loss of mass of the former star accelerates the white dwarf.  

          Iz = Mz . Vz = Pbk = Mbk . Vbk

          Iz – star's momentum;
           Mz – star's mass;

          Ibk – white dwarf's momentum;

       Mbk– white dwarf's mass;

       Vbk– white dwarf's velocity;

       Δmz – mass loss by the star during transition from star to white dwarf.
        The white dwarf's mass is Mbk = Mz - Δmz, and the white dwarf's momentum is

          Ibk = (Mz- Δmz) . Vbk .

But the white dwarf's momentum equals the parent star's momentum Ibk = Iz, then the formula for the white dwarf's velocity will be:

As can be seen from the formula, the white dwarf's velocity increases, since factor 

1. The same reason for velocity increase during transition from white dwarf to neutron star. But in this case, an enormous mass of matter is ejected. Possibly, significantly more than half of the white dwarf's mass.
I=MV=const, so with a decrease in the object's mass, velocity increases, which is confirmed by studies of cosmic object velocities.

3.     The asymmetry of the ejection of part of the white dwarf's mass during a supernova explosion (during its collapse) also influences the neutron star's velocity change.
As can be seen from the analysis of velocities of white dwarfs and neutron stars, the loss of mass by a white dwarf during collapse increases the neutron star's velocity.
Analysis of velocities of stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars, indicates that their mass loss is the main reason for the acceleration of stars, white dwarfs, and neutron stars.
Consequently, the "Dark Energy" effect is physically justified by the law of conservation of momentum of a body.
In the case of asymmetric mass ejection:

    Where:

Analysis of scientific works related to the study of velocities of stars, white dwarfs, and neutron stars showed that due to mass loss, the motion of stars and their remnants accelerate.

Stars from binary and more systems are of great interest. After the collapse of one of the stars, the second receives acceleration, confirming our calculations. That is, a binary star system loses up to 50% of its mass, and the velocity of the remaining neutron star and star increases severalfold. In stellar systems with more than two stars, after several collapses, mass loss in the star system can reach 75% or more. The result of such events may be high-velocity stars and their remnants.
Modern space researchers are amazed by the incredibly high velocities of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. These facts are proof of our hypothesis that the "dark energy" effect lies in the physical and energy properties of the star itself.

Black Holes.
A black hole escaping from its galaxy J0437+2456 has been discovered. Its velocity within the galaxy is 4810 km/s.
Source: https://nplus1.ru/news/2021/03/17/moving-bh ; The Astrophysical Journal.

Black holes as physical objects are not yet studied.

Given objective difficulties due to lack of scientific data, distance from Earth, there are complexities in researching black holes and their kinematics.

1.2.4 The Mechanism of Galaxy Acceleration.

The mechanism of galaxy acceleration lies in the mechanism of star acceleration!!!

Parameters of galaxy and star motion are determined by the motion of light sources, by the motion of stars. Stars accelerate throughout their lives; that is, the light sources by which the motion parameters of galaxies and stars are measured constantly accelerate. But this is not yet the full answer. Acceleration of motion occurs not only on a stellar scale; acceleration also occurs on a galactic scale. Let's consider the acceleration process on a galactic scale.

A daughter galaxy moves faster than the parent galaxy and is a satellite of the parent galaxy.

Why?

The star from which the daughter galaxy was born, at its birth in the parent galaxy, received momentum and velocity of motion. And this star MOVED relative to the parent galaxy. The parent galaxy relative to this star is at rest, although it moves in cosmic space. And the star moves relative to the parent galaxy. That is, the star from which the daughter galaxy will be formed moves in cosmic space faster than the parent galaxy. And during motion, this star and its remnants accelerate. Consequently, the velocity of the future daughter galaxy will be higher than the velocity of the parent galaxy. After the "death" of this star, the collapse of the white dwarf, the formation of the black hole, the daughter galaxy was formed. The daughter galaxy will receive its motion parameters from the parent star. The parent galaxy relative to the daughter is at rest, although it moves in cosmic space. And the daughter galaxy moves relative to the parent. That is, the daughter galaxy moves in cosmic space faster than the parent galaxy. But this velocity increase will be noticeable provided the directions of motion of the parent and daughter galaxies coincide. In case of non-coincidence of motion directions, velocity dispersion will manifest considering vector motion.
Let's consider the mechanism of galaxy acceleration.
The main working mechanism in a galaxy is the black hole located at its center.
All objects in a galaxy are products either produced by this black hole, or with its indirect participation, or products derived from its daughter products.
Stars, stellar remnants, planets, in an elliptical galaxy, in the galactic nucleus and halo, are products of the black hole located at the galaxy's center.
Cosmic objects of the galactic disk and arms, stars, stellar remnants, and planets, are objects derived with indirect participation of the central black hole.
Globular clusters are derivative products from stars produced by the central black hole.
The black hole at the center of the parent galaxy produced and ejected into cosmic space a star with large mass, an elliptical galaxy or halo star. This star accelerated during its life. After "death," the remnants of this star accelerate.
The velocity of stellar remnants is higher than the velocity of the parent star and the parent black hole.
That is, a young black hole has a velocity higher than the velocity of the parent black hole. The young black hole will produce stars, forming its young galaxy around itself. And this young galaxy's velocity will be higher than the velocity of the old parent galaxy. Consequently, a daughter galaxy has a velocity higher than the velocity of the parent galaxy.
The unification and concentration of stars into galaxies is connected not by gravity, but by their birthplace. The birthplace from which stars move away throughout their lives.
The physics of galaxies is more complex than the physics of stars. A galaxy and its black hole are not a solid body or a body bound by gravitational force like a star. The accretion disk and black hole at its center are a gas vortex, a cyclone. Collecting gas mass is an increase in mass, but ejecting stars into space is a decrease in mass around the black hole. Galactic stars are not rigidly bound by gravity, and the stellar system of a galaxy is not a solid body. Therefore, the application of the law of conservation of momentum to the kinematics of a black hole is limited by other physical circumstances.
The topic of velocity dispersion in daughter and parent galaxies requires additional, deeper research.

What is the difficulty in calculating the Hubble Constant.

- The Hubble Constant determines the acceleration coefficient between galaxies, stars. Computations of this parameter give different results.
Why?

1. Inaccuracy of the formula.

2. To calculate the Hubble Constant, it is necessary to consider many kinematic parameters of motion, trajectories of motion, and change in acceleration of stellar motion over time. Trajectories of galaxy and star motion do not follow straight lines but in many cases along spirals. The spiral component is not accounted for in Hubble's formulas. And if accelerations are calculated based on stellar motion, it is necessary to consider the acceleration of stars with increasing age. The principle of deriving the formula for stellar dispersion may enter the system for determining the acceleration of the Universe's expansion.
3. It is necessary to consider that for daughter galaxies, motion trajectories occur with an increasing degree of logarithmic, diverging spiral. The trajectory of the Sun's motion is the trajectory of gas motion in the galaxy's spiral arms, along a converging spiral. That is, the motion of our galaxy occurs along a diverging spiral, while the motion of the Sun within it is along a converging spiral.
4. The motion of the Sun and other stars occurs with continuous velocity increase over time.

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