Chapter 7
THE PHYSICS OF VOIDS

7.1. VOIDS
(Emptiness of Outer Space)

The space of the universe has a structure resembling a porous sponge, where "clumps" of matter alternate with voids. In the expanses of these voids, there is a low concentration of matter, stars, and galaxies. A low concentration of stars, galaxies, and gas does not imply a low concentration of stellar remnants. The concentration of stellar remnants, planets, asteroids, and even cosmic dust may be high. It is possible that this high density of stellar remnants, planets, asteroids, and cosmic dust is the cause of the strong refraction and distortion of light waves as they pass through the voids of the universe.

The reason for the absence of galaxies in the voids of space is the lack of gas for star formation.

- Voids are regions of space in which the gas necessary for star formation is absent.

The density of matter suitable for star formation in voids is significantly lower than the average density of matter in space. At the boundaries of voids are chains of galactic clusters. The sizes of voids reach tens of megaparsecs. However, supervoids also exist, whose sizes reach hundreds of megaparsecs.

Why is gas absent in this part of space?
Why does gas from the surrounding space not flow into the volume of the void?

The answers to these questions are complex and require an analysis of the structure of the void, the cosmic space surrounding it, and a revision of the dominance of the gravitational concept in astrophysics.

The old, erroneous concept states that star formation occurs through the gravitational formation of protostars, in which gas molecules concentrate around a molecular center of gravity.

Today, it is known that outer space has a filamentary-cellular structure consisting of voids surrounded by chains of galaxies.

How are these voids and chains of galaxies formed?
The answer is very simple. In reality, stars and galaxies form and are created in the gas flows of outer space, not around a center of attraction.

Firstly: Galaxies are assemblages of stars united by their place of birth, not by gravity.

Secondly: Gas flows in outer space are the centers of matter concentration and the sources of gas-dynamic forces that gather matter into gas flows.

What shapes and creates gas flows?
Gas flows are created by differences in gas pressure within the gaseous medium of outer space. The reasons for gas pressure differences in outer space can be various:

- temperature differences in the gaseous medium;

- explosions in outer space;

- black holes, accretion disks, cosmic cyclones, tornadoes, vortices;

- the gas flows themselves are a cause of gas pressure differences in outer space;

- non-uniform distribution of force fields.

Perhaps there are other reasons for the existence of gas pressure differences in outer space.

A huge portion of gas flows are created by cosmic gas vortices, cyclones, and tornadoes. These vortices are generated by the accretion disks of black holes, neutron stars, and white dwarfs. There is a high probability that gas vortices are also created in the turbulent motion of the gas flows themselves. That is, the sources of vortices are the accretion disks of stellar remnants (black holes, neutron stars, white dwarfs) and the gas flows themselves. The sources of gas flows are the gas flows from the accretion disks of black holes, neutron stars, white dwarfs, and the gas flows of outer space themselves.

All material objects in outer space are initially synthesized from gas collected in gas vortices and gas flows.

The speed of gas movement in cosmic flows is hundreds of kilometers per second. In a gas flow moving at such a high speed, according to Bernoulli's principle, a force is created that draws matter from neighboring regions of space into this flow. An area of low pressure is created around the gas flow. Dust, atoms, and gas molecules that enter this area of low pressure are drawn into the gas flow.

Gas flows, created by galactic black holes and stellar remnants, collectively form a structural network of gas flows in outer space. New stars and galaxies are formed within large gas flows. Between the gas flows, structural voids are formed, existing between the "filaments" of galaxies. These structural voids are formed due to the gas being drawn out of their volumes into adjacent gas flows. It is in these gas flows that stars and galaxies are formed. Let us call these voids structural voids.

Let us predict the physics of void formation in outer space.

If in some part of outer space there are no stars, it means that in this region of space there is insufficient gas for the formation of stars and galaxies.

The modern theory of protostar formation in outer space is based on an erroneous, outdated gravitational concept. Studies of outer space have shown that stars and galaxies form in gas flows. That is, for the formation of stars and galaxies, it is necessary to create gas flows.

Gas flows are created by black holes, and within these gas flows, stars are formed and born, and from stars, galaxies are formed.

How are voids formed?
To understand the physics of void formation in outer space, it is necessary to understand the main principle of star and galaxy formation.

The principle is very simple:
"If somewhere something is increasing, then somewhere else it is decreasing."

Stars are formed from the gas and matter of outer space. Galaxies are formed from stars. Consequently, stars and galaxies are formed from the gas and matter of outer space.

That is, to form one star, it is necessary to take gas and matter from the surrounding outer space and deliver this gas to the place where the star is to be born.

The principle of void formation is that star formation in a certain region of outer space absorbs gas and forms stars from this gas. Within stars, from the collected gas, chemical elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are synthesized (produced). From these chemical elements, planets, dust, and other cosmic objects are formed.

And what remains in the surrounding outer space from which the gas was taken?
The answer is simple: A Void!

And what are the dimensions of this void?

From what volume of outer space must gas be taken to form a star with the mass of the Sun?

The mass of the Sun is Ms = 1.9885.1030 kg = 1.9885.1033 g.

Let us determine Ys — the minimum volume of outer space required to form a star with the mass of the Sun. From this volume of outer space, gas molecules and dust must be taken to form a star with the mass of the Sun.

To form a star, a group of stars, a galaxy, or a group of galaxies, it is necessary to collect matter from some volume of outer space. Let us call this volume of outer space the "donor volume."

The average density of matter in the universe is ρ = 10⁻²⁹ g/cm³. The average density of the Sun is ρs = 1.4 g/cm³.

Let us calculate the volume of the cosmic "donor" space, Ys, from which gas atoms and dust must be collected to form a star with the mass of the Sun. Before the star's formation, its mass was dispersed in outer space. This dispersed mass of the star is determined by the formula:

Ms = ρ · Ys

To determine the volume Ys, it is necessary to divide the mass of the Sun by the density of matter in outer space ρ.

Ys = 1.9885 . 1062 sm3 = 1.9885 . 1056 m3 = 1.9885 . 1045 km3 = 6.7682097 . 104  pc3

Ys = 67682.097 pc3.

To form a star with the mass of the Sun, it is necessary to collect gas molecules and dust from a volume in outer space of Ys = 67682.097 pc3.

From the formula for the volume of a sphere, let us determine its diameter D:

A sphere with a volume Ys has a diameter of more than 50 pc. That is, during the formation of a star with the mass of the Sun, a minimal void with a diameter of over 50 pc is created.

How many times greater is the volume of the stellar void Ys compared to the volume of the star itself, Ysu?

The average density of matter in the universe is ρ = 10⁻²⁹ g/cm³. The average density of the Sun is ρs = 1.4 g/cm³.

That is, the volume of outer space, Ys, from which gas and dust must be taken to form a star with the mass of the Sun, is 1.4 . 10²⁹ times greater than the volume of the star itself, Ysu.

To form a galaxy, it is necessary to take from outer space an amount of gas billions of times greater than that required to form a single star. And all this gas must be gathered into the volume of the future galaxy.

What kind of void in outer space must be created during the formation of a galaxy?

What kind of void in outer space must be created during the formation of a group of galaxies?

What kind of void in outer space must be formed during the creation of a cluster of galaxy groups?

Let us consider the KBC Void as an example.

The KBC Void was created by a large number of gas flows from galaxies located inside this void. These galactic gas flows draw gas out of the void's volume. That is, the galaxies situated within and around the void, through their gas flows, create this void. The diameter of this emptiness is 600 Mpc, or 2 billion light-years. Inside the KBC Void is the Local Group of galaxies, which includes our galaxy, the Milky Way, and the Laniakea Supercluster of galaxies. The Local Group of galaxies comprises 100 galaxies, with a total mass of about 5 · 10¹² solar masses. The Laniakea Supercluster contains approximately 100,000 galaxies, with a total mass of about 10¹⁷ solar masses. The size of the Local Group is about 3 Mpc, and the size of the Laniakea Supercluster is 160 Mpc.

It was previously calculated that to form a star with the mass of the Sun, it is necessary to collect gas molecules and dust from a volume in outer space of Ys = 67682.097 pc³. A sphere with a volume Ys has a diameter of more than 50 pc. That is, during the formation of a star with the mass of the Sun, a minimal void with a diameter of over 50 pc is created.

Let us predict the minimum volume (size) of the void that should have been created as a result of the formation of the Laniakea Supercluster and the Local Group of galaxies, with a total mass of M = 100005 · 10¹² solar masses.

M =∑ Mz = (100005.1012) . Ms = (100005.1012) . (1.9885 . 1033) g  = 198859.94 . 1045 g.

∑ Mz is the sum of the stellar masses in the studied region of outer space.

Let us predict the minimum dimensions of the KBC Void, taking into account the stellar mass of the galaxy clusters within this void.

Where M =∑ Mz = (100005.1012) . Ms

∑ Mz =  (100005.1012) . Ms =100005.1012 solar masses – the total mass of stars born within the volume of the KBC Void.

∑ Mz = (100005.1012) . Ms = (100005.1012) . (1.9885 . 1033) g  = 198859.94 . 1045 g  

Y – the "donor volume," the necessary minimum volume of the void formed during the creation of the galaxy clusters within the void.

Y= (100005.1012) . Ys = (100005.1012) . 67682.097 pc3

          Consequently, the minimum volume of a spherical void for the superclusters and groups of galaxies in the KBC Void cannot be less than Y= 67.68548110485 . 1020  pc3. The diameter of such a spherical void would be 23,469,236.747 pc (23.469236 Mpc).

For more accurate calculations, more data is needed: the density of matter throughout the entire volume of the void, including within galaxies, galaxy clusters, and gas flows, as well as the mass of all stellar remnants born in the studied space.

The diameter of the KBC Void is 600 Mpc, or 2 billion light-years.

         Outer space is vast, and all of this space is occupied by a gaseous medium. Consequently, the primary laws operating in outer space are the laws of a gaseous medium. And if, in some part of space, a reduced amount of gas forms, gas flows into this region from other areas. However, the gaseous medium of outer space is not homogeneous and consists of gas flows in which stars, galaxies, and galactic chains are formed (Fig. 7.1).

                       Source:

The porous structure of the universe. Galaxy filaments alternate with voids.
(40) Figure #7.1

That is, gas flows shape the structure of the universe. Voids are formed within this structure. Consequently, to understand the formation of the universe's structure and the creation of voids within it, it is necessary to examine and understand the physics of gas flows.

7.2. The Physics of Gas Flows and the Formation of Voids in Outer Space

Gas flows in outer space move at speeds of 100–300 km/s.

The movement of gas in these flows creates forces that draw gas and matter from outer space into this moving gas flow. The greater the speed of the gas in the flow, the greater the force drawing matter (gas and dust) from the surrounding space into this flow.

The sources of gas flow formation are black holes and the accretion disks of stellar remnants. Almost every galaxy contains black holes. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, contains one hundred million black holes, which form a system of gas flows. The most powerful black holes in galaxies are quasars. It is quasars, together with the black holes of galaxies, that shape the gas flows in the universe.

The black holes of galaxies and galaxy clusters can be compared to a compressor and a large group of compressors. These natural compressors draw in gas, dust, and other matter from the surrounding outer space and pack the collected gas and matter into stars. From these stars, galaxies are formed.

As one approaches the galactic center, towards the quasar, the speed of the gas flows increases. The gas flows in the galactic disk and spiral arms move at speeds of 200–300 km/s, while the speed of the gas flow in the accretion disk of a quasar reaches up to 170,000 km/s. Consequently, the force drawing gas into the gas flows increases with proximity to the accretion disk of the central black hole, the quasar.

If we consider the fundamental design of disk and spiral galaxies, technically, they function as two-stage compressors, collecting gas from outer space for star formation.

The first stage of compression consists of the gas flows in the disk and spiral arms. The gas flow speed here is 200–300 km/s. In this first stage of gas compression, low-mass stars—the stars of the disk and spiral arms—are formed. Stars formed in this first stage evolve into planets, and possibly into stellar cores.

Halo stars move away from the galactic center, away from the black hole, along a spiral trajectory. Meanwhile, the stars of the galactic disk and arms possibly approach the galactic center, moving within their gas flows along a spiral trajectory.

It is possible that the stars and white dwarfs of the galactic disk and arms, moving in their gas flows along a spiral trajectory, travel towards the galactic center.
It is also possible that neutron stars are captured by these gas flows.

These white dwarfs and neutron stars, upon entering the accretion disk of the central black hole, may become the cores of future halo stars. It is conceivable that during their journey within the gas flows of the galactic disk and arms, neutron stars and white dwarfs may have repeatedly served as the cores of stars.

In the second stage of compression, within the accretion disk of the quasar, stars of intermediate and high mass are formed. The speed of the gas flow in this accretion disk reaches 170,000 km/s.

Stars formed by the second stage, those with high mass, evolve into galaxies via black holes and globular clusters.

Stars formed by the second stage, but with intermediate mass, evolve into terrestrial planets via neutron stars, and possibly into stellar cores. In elliptical galaxies, the collection and compression of gas into stars occurs through a single-stage process, within the accretion disk of the central black hole.

This is how galaxies compress the gas of outer space to form stars.

However, fundamentally, the mechanism of galaxies can also be viewed as an accelerator of gas and dust particles. An elliptical galaxy can be seen as a single-stage particle accelerator, while a disk or spiral galaxy can be seen as a two-stage particle accelerator. Disk and spiral galaxies can also be regarded as two particle accelerators within a single galactic structure.

That is, the gas flows of galaxies are simultaneously a compressor for collecting and compressing gas into stars, and a particle accelerator for initiating the thermonuclear fusion reaction within the formed star. In other words, the gas flows of a galaxy, created by black holes and the accretion disks of stellar remnants, are the primary mechanism of star formation in galaxies. Consequently, the gas flows of a galaxy are the main mechanism for the evolution of the galaxy itself, and the mechanism for the nuclear evolution of chemical matter.

Therefore, the mechanism of the universe's evolution is its gas flows.

Let us consider the processes of void formation in outer space and the influence of gas flows on the shaping of these voids.

Let us examine the physical events accompanying the movement of gas in the flows of galactic chains.

Let us predict the variants of physical events in the space around the gas flows of galactic chains and the gas flows around galaxy clusters.

Variant # 1: A Single Gas Flow.

Gas moving in a flow draws gas and matter from the surrounding outer space into its flow, as shown in Fig. 7.2. That is, the gas flow is a source of the Bernoulli force, FBrn, which is directed inward into the gas flow. It is not gravity, but the Bernoulli force, FBrn n, that is the source of drawing matter into the gas flow.

(41) Figure # 7.2

Figure 7.2 depicts the outer space surrounding a gas flow.

The gas within the gas flow moves at a speed of 100–300 km/s. As the gas moves in these flows, a force, FBrn, is created—a force that draws gas and dust (matter) from the surrounding space into this gas flow. Let us name this force FBrn the "Bernoulli force."

Fig. 7.2 shows the direction of gas movement from the surrounding space towards the gas flow, under the influence of the force FBrn.

The outer space around the gas flow is divided into three zones: A, B, and Z.

   - Zone A is the region of open outer space, where the density of gas and dust is the average density of outer space, ρ (ρ = 10⁻²⁹ g/cm³).

   - Zone Z is the region surrounding the gas flow. In this zone, gas and dust concentrate before being incorporated into the gas flow. The density of gas and dust in Zone Z is higher than the density of gas and dust in Zone A (higher than ρ = 10⁻²⁹ g/cm³). This effect is explained by the movement of gas around the flow being directed inward toward it. That is, the gas flow is surrounded by a gas cloud. In this gas cloud, the excess pressure differential is directed not towards the outer space where the gas density is lower, but towards the gas flow where the gas density is higher.

   - Zone B is the region located between Zones A and Z. Zone B surrounds Zone Z and has a density of gas and dust lower than in Zones A and Z. The low content of gas and dust in Zone B is explained by the drawing of gas and dust into Zone Z. The volume of Zone Z is smaller than the volume of Zone B.

The movement of gas from Zone B to Zone Z occurs from a larger volume into a smaller volume; consequently, the concentration of gas in Zone Z is higher than the concentration of gas in Zone B.

Zone A is the region of open outer space, and possibly of infinite space. Gas and dust move from Zone A to Zone B, replenishing the gas reserves in Zone B. However, this replenishment of gas in Zone B occurs with a time delay. In Zone B, a region of low matter density forms. This region of low matter density in Zone B is replenished with gas from Zone A. But the low matter density in Zone B is also maintained by the drawing of gas and dust into Zone Z. Consequently, between Zones A and Z, a conditional void is formed, and that is Zone B.

7.2.1 "Structural Voids"

Variant # 2: Two Parallel Gas Flows.

Let us consider the physical events when two gas flows pass parallel to each other in space, as shown in Fig. 7.3.

The physical processes on the outer sides of the two gas flows are similar and correspond to the case examined in Variant No. 1, Fig. 7.2. The outer space on the external sides of the two gas flows is divided into three zones A, B, and Z, as described in Variant No. 1. However, the physical processes occurring in the space between the gas flows need to be examined in more detail.

In the space between the gas flows, Zone A is absent. Zones B overlap each other, provided that the influx of gas from Zone A is hindered or absent. The overlapping of Zones B from the two gas flows creates a region of low matter density—a void zone, a "Void" zone—under the condition that no gas enters this zone. Over time, this void zone should increase, as gas and dust from the space of this zone are drawn out by the gas flows (Fig. 7.3).

(42) Figure #7.3

Variant # 3: Multiple Non-Parallel Gas Flows.

Let us consider the physical events in the case where multiple gas flows pass through space, as shown in Fig. 7.4.

Formation of the "Porous" Structure of the Universe.
(43) Figure #7.4

Figure 7.4 depicts the process of forming structural voids in the universe.

It shows the gas flows of galactic filaments (chains), highlighting the regions of outer space: Zones A, B, Z, and the Void zone.

 Zones A are regions of open outer space. Gas and dust from outer space are drawn into the gas flows of galactic chains, as illustrated in Figure 7.4.

In Variant # 2, we examined the predicted formation of a void between two gas flows, under the condition of absent or limited gas influx into the "Void" zone.

In Variant # 3, multiple gas flows pass through space, and the condition of limited gas influx into the "Void" zone effectively exists.

Zones "Void" are regions of outer space located between galactic chains. From these zones, gas and dust are drawn out by the gas flows of galaxies to form stars in the galaxies that surround them.

The "Void" zones are more isolated by the gas flows than Zones A and B. The gas flows surrounding them draw gas and dust out of the "Void" zones. The influx of gas from open outer space is limited in these zones due to their isolation. In the "Void" zones, a deeper void (a deeper vacuum) is created than in Zones A and B. That is, the gas flows of galactic chains located in outer space form voids by drawing gas and dust from the surrounding space to form their stars. This is how the "porous" structure of the universe is formed.

Let us designate this type of void formation as Type # 1 – "Structural Voids." "Structural" voids are shown in Fig. 7.1. "Structural" voids ("structural" voids) in Figures 7.1 and 7.4 are located between galactic chains.

7.2.2 "Outer Void"

Variant # 4.

Let us consider the process of void formation in outer space around clusters of galaxies, as shown in Figure 7.5.

The basic principle of star formation: "To form a star, it is necessary to collect the gas of the future star from the surrounding outer space." The removal of gas from the surrounding outer space will lead to a decrease in the density and pressure of the gas in that region, that is, to the formation of a void.

Let us consider the process of void formation in outer space, within and around clusters of galaxies, as shown in Figure 7.5.

Formation of Voids within and around Clusters of Galaxies.
(44) Figure # 7.5

Figure 7.5 depicts chains of galaxy clusters. The outer space around a cluster of galaxies is divided into five zones: A, B, C, D, and Z.

The main criterion for dividing outer space into these zones is the density of gas and dust in each zone.

Zone A is the zone of open outer space. In Zone A, the gas and dust density corresponds to the average density of gas in space.

Zone B is the zone surrounding a galaxy cluster from the outside. Gas and dust from Zone B are drawn into the gas flows of the galaxy clusters, passing through Zone Z. Around the galaxy cluster, a zone of reduced pressure and reduced gas density is created. However, since Zone B is connected to Zone A, gas and dust flow from Zone A into Zone B. But a galaxy cluster occupies a vast volume of space. The transfer of gas from Zone A to Zone B, and the filling of Zone B, occurs with a significant time delay.

The extraction of gas and dust from Zone B by the galactic gas flows is continuous; consequently, the reduced gas and dust content in Zone B is maintained. That is, around the galaxy cluster, the gas flows of these clusters create and sustain lower gas density and pressure in Zone B. A void is formed and maintained in Zone B.

Zone Z refers to the zones of gas clouds surrounding the gas flows of galaxies. One of the key signs of a "live" galaxy—one in which star formation is occurring—is the existence of gas clouds around it, i.e., Zone Z.

Zones C and D are surrounded by the gas flows of galaxy clusters; these gas flows prevent gas from entering Zones C and D. The absence of gas in a zone halts star formation. In Zones C and D, as in Zone B, gas and dust are drawn into the gas flows of the galaxy clusters, creating voids in these zones.

Zone C, through Zone B, has a connection to Zone A, so the gas in this zone may be partially replenished. Zone D is isolated from Zone A by gas flows and by Zones C and B. The penetration of gas into Zone D encounters major obstacles; and as the number of obstacles increases, gas will cease to enter Zone D altogether. In Zone D, a deep vacuum forms, and star formation in the galaxies of this zone stops. The galaxies will age and "die." A void is formed in Zone D.

Based on the analysis illustrated in Fig. 7.5, a prediction is made regarding the events that occur during the formation of voids in space, under the condition of a small galaxy cluster.

Variant # 5:
Let us predict the process of void formation in a more complex galaxy cluster, as shown in Fig. 7.6.

(45) Figure # 7.6

Figure # 7.6 presents a predicted possible scenario for the formation of voids around several galaxy clusters. The cosmic space depicted in Figure #7.6 is divided into eight zones: A, B, C, D, E, G, H, and Z. Zones B, C, D, E, G, and H are void zones, each characterized by varying reduced densities of gas and matter. The formation of these voids occurs under the influence of Bernoulli forces (FBrn), whose action is directed toward the gas flows of the galaxies.

These forces draw gas and matter into the galactic gas flows and their clusters for star formation, extracting this gas and matter from the surrounding outer space.

In certain regions of space, these forces act in multiple directions, pulling gas and dust out of these areas and thereby creating voids.

Zone A: The zone of open outer space. In Zone A, the density of gas and dust corresponds to the average density of gas in space.

Zone B: The zone surrounding several galaxy clusters. Gas and dust from Zone B are drawn into the gas flows of the galaxy clusters located within this zone. The large (red) arrows indicate the direction of gas movement in Zone B.

The movement of gas in Zone B is directed toward the gas flows generated by the galaxy clusters. Around these clusters, a zone of reduced pressure and reduced gas density is created. Gas and dust flow from Zone A into Zone B. However, due to the time delay and the action of Bernoulli forces (FBrn), which draw gas and dust out of the zone, a void is formed in Zone B.

Around the galaxy clusters, within Zone B, the gas flows of these clusters create and maintain a lowered gas density and pressure. The formation of the void in Zone B occurs as a result of internal star formation. That is, the matter of Zone B is not drawn out of the zone, but rather inward into it. Inside Zone B, star formation takes place, and the gas and dust required for this star formation are drawn both from the internal volume of the galaxy clusters and from the space surrounding these clusters. Let us designate this type of void as Type #2: "Outer Void".

However, cosmic space also exists within the galaxy clusters themselves. The volumes of this internal cosmic space are enormous. The gas flows of the galaxies also draw gas and matter out of this internal space, thereby forming internal voids.

7.2.3 "Inner Void"

Zones C, D, E, G, and H in Figure 7.6 are "Inner Voids."

Zones C, D, E, G, and H are surrounded by galaxies and their gas flows. In these zones, just as in Zone B, gas and dust are drawn into the gas flows of the galaxy clusters, forming voids.

In Zone B, the gas used for star formation is drawn inward into the zone, and star formation occurs inside Zone B. In contrast, in Zones C, D, E, G, and H, gas is drawn outward from these zones, because star formation takes place outside of Zones C, D, E, G, and H. Within these zones, star formation is very low or entirely absent due to the lack of gas.

Zone C, through Zones E and G, has a connection to Zones B and A, and therefore the gas in Zone C may be partially replenished. Zone D, however, is isolated from Zones B and A by gas flows and by Zones C, E, and G. The penetration of gas into Zone D encounters significant obstacles; the greater the number of obstacles, the less gas enters the zone. In Zone D, a region with minimal gas pressure and density forms. In the galaxies of this zone, star formation may cease. A void is formed in Zone D.

Zone H, with gas parameters similar to those of Zone D, may form in the space between several galaxies or galaxy clusters. The formation of Zone H occurs under the influence of multiple forces extracting gas from this zone. The extraction forces acting on the gas in this zone pull in different directions—toward the gas flows of several galaxy clusters. Voids of this type may form between large galaxy clusters. The isolation of zones such as H is maintained by gas and dust extraction forces acting in multiple directions, creating a "dead zone" for gas penetration. Alternatively, any gas that does enter the zone is drawn out by the extraction forces acting from neighboring zones.

Zones E and G are formed within Zone B under the influence of gas extraction forces acting in different directions. The extraction of gas from Zones E and G, as in Zone H, occurs toward the gas flows of several galaxy clusters. However, due to the lesser isolation of these zones, there remains a possibility of gas replenishment from Zones B and A.

We shall designate the voids formed in Zones C, D, E, G, and H as Type # 3: "Inner Voids," because these voids are formed internally, between galaxies and between galaxy clusters.

This forecast indicates a pattern in the formation of voids in outer space. Voids (Zone B) form around one or several galaxy clusters, and within such a void, inner voids are formed.

The primary cause of void formation is star formation in the cosmos of the universe.

What physical characteristics do voids possess?

The physical characteristics of voids are as follows:

- The number of stars and galaxies within the void space;

- The rate and density of star formation;

- The density and mass of gas;

- The parameter of gas isolation of the void volume from open outer space;

- The parameter of the relationship between star formation and gas inflow into the void space (the gradient of gas density or pressure between open space and the void space, characterizing the balance between star formation and gas supply into the star-forming region).

Based on these physical characteristics, it is possible to predict the evolution of voids and identify regions of outer space that are candidates for becoming voids.

Figure # 7.7 presents a schematic diagram of the formation of Type # 2 "Outer Voids" and Type # 3 "Inner Voids." Inside the "Outer Void," in Zone B, there is a star-forming region. Gas is drawn into this star-forming region from Zone B. By extracting gas from Zone B, the reduced concentration of matter in this zone is maintained, thereby sustaining the physical parameters of the "Outer Void." Matter from Zone B is drawn inward into the zone. From this gas, stars are formed, which have a matter density higher than the density of gas in outer space.

The formation of Type # 3 "Inner Voids" occurs in cosmic space surrounded by star-forming regions. Type # 3 voids are formed by the extraction of matter from their space into the star-forming regions. Structural voids are formed between galactic filaments.

                        Schematic Diagram of the Formation of the Second Type of Void (Type #2), the "Outer Void," and the Third Type (Type #3), the "Inner Void."
(46) Figure #7.7

We have examined and physically substantiated forecasts for the formation of three types of voids in outer space:

1. "Structural Voids";

2. "Outer Voids";

3. "Inner Voids."

The existence of aging and "dying" peculiar galaxies indicates the presence of a fourth type of void. Let us designate this type of void as the "Depleted Void."
Accordingly, these Type #4 voids will be called "Depleted Voids."

7.2.4 Depleted Voids

Let us return to the fundamental principle of star formation.
All objects in outer space were once hydrogen gas. This gas was collected and packed into stars. A star is a nuclear reactor. In this nuclear reactor, the chemical elements that constitute all living and non-living objects in outer space were synthesized.

That is, cosmic objects are synthesized and formed from the gas of outer space. The density of these objects is higher than the density of the gas from which they were synthesized.

Consequently, in a region of outer space where star formation occurs, the amount of gas decreases, while the number of stars and objects with a density higher than the gas density in that cosmic region increases. As the amount (density) of gas in a region of outer space diminishes, star formation in that region declines. Over time, the gas reserves in that region of outer space become exhausted. Stars age and "die." Due to the low concentration of gas, star formation approaches zero.

But outer space is vast, and gas can "flow" from one region of space to another, filling voids.

Then why do galaxies "die," and why do voids form in their place?

Let us examine the evolution of depleted voids in more detail.

Gas is the "blood" of a galaxy. The gas flows of a galaxy are its "circulatory" system. If a galaxy has no gas flows, it is "dying," or is already clinically "dead."

The powerful quasar and one hundred million black holes located in the Milky Way galaxy have formed a vast system of gas flows within our galaxy. This system of gas flows supplies gas from outer space to the star-forming regions of the Milky Way.

The primary mechanism of star formation in a galaxy is the black hole at its center—the quasar. It is this black hole that initiates the star formation process, and the "death" of the black hole at the galactic center reduces or halts star formation.

However, over the lifetime of a galaxy, a certain number of black holes form within its space.
The Milky Way galaxy contains one hundred million black holes.

A galaxy that lacks even a single black hole is a dying, or possibly already "dead," galaxy. The "death" of all black holes in a galaxy means the cessation of its gas flows. The cessation of a galaxy's gas flows means the cessation of star formation within it. The cessation of star formation in a galaxy leads to its aging and eventual "death." As some of its stars "die," the galaxy transitions into the stage of an aging peculiar galaxy. The next stage is the "death" of the galaxy and the formation of a void in its place.

Why, in the infinite expanse of the universe, with its enormous reserves of hydrogen gas, do galaxies lack sufficient gas for star formation?

The formation of voids in outer space is a physically inevitable process.

To understand the process of void formation, it is necessary to consider the time chain of the evolution of galaxies and their clusters within a limited volume of outer space.

Let us predict the processes within this time chain of galactic and cluster evolution.

Initial conditions:
In a vast, limited volume of outer space filled with gas, a black hole appears. In this example, the reasons for the black hole's appearance are of no interest and will not be considered.

The central black hole is the primary mechanism of star formation in a galaxy.

The black hole gathers gas from outer space into an accretion disk. The drawing of gas into the accretion disk by the black hole creates gas flows in the outer space surrounding the black hole.

A black hole cannot draw in gas from outer space indefinitely. Upon reaching certain critical parameters, the black hole must eject the accumulated gas back into space. But is it worthwhile to gather gas in an accretion disk only to eject it back into outer space without any transformation? Of course not! The black hole ejects back into outer space the gas that has been gathered into stars. From these ejected stars, globular clusters are formed. The further evolution of these globular star clusters leads to the formation of galaxies.

What mechanism within the black hole takes gas from outer space, forms stars from this gas, and ejects these stars back into space? The accretion disk!!! There are no other mechanisms within the black hole!!!!!

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