7.3. From the Evolution of Halo Stars to the Formation of Voids

In modern astrophysics, the existence of satellite galaxies orbiting larger galaxies is explained by gravitational interaction between galaxies during random encounters or collisions.

This hypothesis is erroneous, because when analyzing research data, the facts of the motion of halo stars, globular star clusters, and satellite galaxies have not been taken into account and compared. A time chain of events in the evolution of halo stars has not been constructed.

Satellite galaxies are born from the galaxies of which they are satellites.
That is, daughter galaxies are satellites of their mother galaxies.

Halo stars are stars of large and intermediate masses, born from the black hole at the center of a galaxy.

Let us construct a logical chain of the evolution of halo stars.

1.     At birth, a halo star receives an impulse. The impulse and motion of the halo star are directed away from the mother black hole along a spiral trajectory. It is possible that halo stars inherit their motion trajectories from the trajectory of the parent accretion disk and the action of centrifugal forces. The combination of these two parameters shapes the trajectory of halo stars in the form of a spiral moving away from the galactic center. It is possible that additional dynamic forces and processes also participate in shaping the trajectories of halo stars.

2.     Halo stars, upon "dying," collapse, transitioning into the stage of "black holes" or "neutron stars." The greater the mass of the star, the shorter its "life," and the closer to the mother black hole the star's collapse occurs.

3.     Daughter black holes and neutron stars, in their accretion disks, gather gas from the surrounding outer space. However, this outer space is located within the volume of the mother galaxy, or adjacent to it. That is, the daughter black holes, born after the collapse of halo stars, take gas away from the mother galaxy and from its central black hole.

Let us consider a schematic representation of the Milky Way, Figure 7.8.

In Fig. 7.8, globular star clusters are highlighted.

Schematic representation of the structure of the Milky Way, edge-on view.
(47) Figure # 7.8.

Globular star clusters have black holes at their centers.

Daughter black holes form gas flows around themselves.
These gas flows of the young black holes draw gas away from the mother black hole and from the space of its galaxy for their own star formation.

From the stars of the daughter black holes, globular star clusters are formed.

However, in the halo, beyond the bulge of the mother galaxy, the gas flows are stronger than the gas flows of the globular clusters, and the majority of the gas is taken up for star formation by the mother galaxy.

In globular clusters, star formation may cease due to a lack of gas, caused by the weakness of the young black hole and its gas flows. However, when globular clusters enter a region of space with favorable conditions for star formation, star formation resumes. The collapse of white dwarfs reactivates star formation in globular clusters, forming neutron stars and black holes, which become new sources of star formation.

Beyond the mother galaxy, the evolution of globular star clusters transitions into the stage of galaxy formation.

The proximity of a globular cluster to the galactic center indicates that the parent stars of the globular cluster had a short lifespan before collapsing. Consequently, these stars were of high mass.

The closer to the black hole the collapse of a star born within it occurs, the greater the mass of that star was. Conversely, the farther from the black hole the collapse of a star born within it occurs, the lower the mass of that star was.

In the space surrounding the mother black hole, a large amount of gas is accumulated. The closer to the mother black hole—within the bulge—the collapse of a halo star occurs, the more favorable the conditions for star formation around the daughter black hole. The more stars will be born in the globular cluster formed by this black hole.

Let us examine the evolutionary scheme of globular star clusters around the mother galaxy.

Evolution of a Single Globular Star Cluster.
(48) Figure # 7.9

Figure # 7.9 depicts the evolution of a single globular star cluster. Forming not far from the galactic center, the globular cluster moves away from the galactic center, increasing in size and growing in the number of stars within the cluster. As the number of stars increases, the globular clusters, having passed through the stage of dwarf galaxies, become galaxies, as shown in Figure #7.9.

As globular star clusters transition into the galaxy stage, they increase the amount of gas they draw from outer space through their gas flows.

4.     From the globular star clusters and young daughter galaxies, a sphere forms around the mother galaxy and its central black hole.

The mother galaxy has produced a large number of high-mass stars. These stars, as they evolve, become black holes, which in turn form globular star clusters and galaxies, as illustrated in Figure # 7.10.

The mother galaxy, possessing strong and numerous gas flows, can draw gas away from globular star clusters and daughter galaxies. The powerful gas flows of the mother galaxy can halt star formation in a daughter dwarf galaxy or in a globular cluster.

However, having moved beyond the sphere of influence of the mother galaxy and outside the reach of its gas flows, globular clusters and daughter galaxies form their own gas flows. Thereby limiting and isolating the mother galaxy from the inflow of gas from outer space. If star formation in a globular cluster or daughter galaxy was halted, this does not signify the demise of the galaxy, even with the loss of star-forming sources. Upon encountering gas flows, star formation resumes following the collapse of a white dwarf. This fact is confirmed by research.

Diagram of the Spatial Evolution of Globular Star Clusters Around the Mother Galaxy.
(49) Figure # 7.10.

With age, the mother galaxy becomes surrounded by its globular star clusters and its daughter galaxies. These globular star clusters and daughter galaxies, through their gas flows, block and draw gas away from the mother galaxy. Gas is the "blood" of a galaxy. The gas flows of a galaxy are its "circulatory" system. If a galaxy has no gas flows, it is "dying," or is already "dead."

The depletion or exhaustion of gas in a galaxy means that there is insufficient gas within the galaxy's volume for star formation.

5.     In turn, the daughter globular clusters and daughter galaxies produce their own high-mass stars. Their evolution follows the path: black hole → globular cluster → galaxy. And the daughter galaxies of these daughter galaxies come to surround their own mother galaxies, which had formed a sphere around the first mother galaxy.

These galaxies and their gas flows block the inflow of gas to the mother galaxy and to the mother black hole. Blocking the inflow of gas into the mother galaxy halts star formation. The mother galaxy, surrounded by daughter galaxies and their gas flows, "starves"; over time, star formation in the mother galaxy declines and ceases.

The central black hole of the first mother galaxy, having given rise to globular clusters and galaxies, engages in a struggle for the gas of outer space with its "children" and "grandchildren."

In a strong mother galaxy, the central black hole is more powerful than the black holes of the daughter galaxies and young globular clusters. And the mother black hole draws gas away from the still-weak black holes of nearby daughter galaxies and globular clusters. The parent galaxies, daughter galaxies, and globular clusters move relative to one another. Daughter galaxies and globular clusters may pass through zones with higher or lower gas content, encountering gas clouds along their paths.

Star formation in these objects may increase or decrease; it depends on the amount of gas in the space through which they travel.

Mother galaxies, their "children," and their "grandchildren" struggle among themselves for survival—for the gas of outer space.

There is a probability that in some number of globular clusters within mother galaxies, star formation ceases. Consequently, their evolution halts. They remain clusters of stars that eventually disperse. Such a scenario is confirmed by research. Similar processes are observed not only with globular star clusters but also with the dwarf satellite galaxies of the Milky Way, Draco and Leo I.

Masashi Chiba of Tohoku University in Sendai, Japan, and his graduate student Takahiro Miyoshi, while studying seven dwarf satellite galaxies of the Milky Way, established that
“… today Leo I is not creating new stars and, like Draco, has no gas for doing so.”
Source: https://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/nauka_i_tehnika/astronomiya/MESTNAYA_GRUPPA_GALAKTIK.html
arXiv: 2003.07006. Published October 23, 2020.

Our prediction regarding the existence of mother and daughter galaxies is confirmed by the observed fact that galaxies have satellite galaxies. The Milky Way galaxy has over sixty satellite galaxies.

Today it is known that the Milky Way galaxy has 157 globular clusters and 63 satellite galaxies, while the Andromeda galaxy has 400 globular clusters and 35 satellite galaxies.

              Map of Satellite Galaxies of the Milky Way
Source: Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_galaxies_of_the_Milky_Way
(50) Figure # 7.11

With increasing age, in its old age, the mother galaxy becomes surrounded by numerous developed daughter galaxies and globular clusters.

Many black holes of the daughter galaxies grow stronger than the black holes of the mother galaxy. They surround the mother galaxy at great distances, drawing away gas and, with their gas flows, blocking the gas flows directed toward the mother galaxy.

6. The first mother galaxy finds itself surrounded by several layers of spheres of daughter galaxies. And all the "daughters" draw gas from the outer space around themselves.

The "daughters" take the gas that was meant to flow to the first mother galaxy for star formation.

The mother galaxy "starves"; star formation within it declines and ceases; the galaxy's black holes, due to the lack of gas, "die"; the gas flows become depleted and dissipate.

7. The first mother galaxy ages and "dies," surrounded by daughter galaxies that have created an impenetrable sphere preventing gas from entering. The first mother galaxy transitions into the stage of an aging peculiar galaxy. In the first mother galaxy, star formation decreases, then stops entirely, and stars "die" one after another. The galaxy's appearance becomes irregular, peculiar.

Such a scenario is confirmed by observations of outer space. Aging peculiar galaxies are found surrounded by younger galaxies.

This is how galaxies "die"! Within the volume of a "dying" galaxy, a void forms.

But... this is only the beginning!!! Around the dying mother galaxy, daughter galaxies form, which will repeat the path of the mother galaxy. And the volume of the void increases.

Daughter galaxies, through themselves and their gas structures, have formed several gas-impermeable spheres, creating a void at the center of these spheres. Let us call these voids "depleted voids," analogous to exhausted mines in which cavities remain.

Are the depleted voids of outer space empty? Of course not! Within these voids are planets, stellar remnants, dust, and other cosmic objects. The density of objects within voids can be inferred from the density of radiation emanating from them. In these voids, there is insufficient gas for star formation. There is not enough gas as the building material for stars. The void space is occupied by dust and stellar remnants—objects already created from the exhausted building material. It is possible to identify a void as "depleted" by the density of stellar remnants within it.

"Depleted voids" are surrounded by gas-impermeable layers consisting of galaxies and their gas flows. If a galaxy finds itself inside a "depleted void," it will "die" relatively quickly, having exhausted the small amount of gas remaining or seeping into the void. This is precisely why there are few galaxies inside a "depleted void."

But is there evidence for such a scenario involving daughter galaxies? Yes!!! The existence of globular star clusters and satellite galaxies orbiting larger galaxies confirms the prediction of mother and daughter galaxies.

The Milky Way galaxy is known to have over sixty satellite galaxies (Fig. 7.11). The trajectories of these galaxies bear similarities to the trajectories of halo stars and globular star clusters.

A logical diagram of void formation is depicted in Figure # 7.12.

Logical Diagram of Void Formation.
(51) Figure # 7.12

According to the laws of physics, a "depleted void" must expand!

The number of outer gas-impermeable spheres, composed of galaxies and their gas flows, increases. The amount of gas within the voids decreases, and star formation on the void side declines and eventually ceases. Stars and galaxies on the side of the "depleted void" "die." The space once occupied by these "dead" stars and galaxies adds to the volume of the void itself.

Analogous processes occur with the daughter galaxies surrounding the space of the mother galaxy.

The repetition of such processes leads to an increase in the volume of voids. It is possibly in this way that large voids are formed.

Thus, the space of "depleted voids" expands.

Let us examine a prospective diagram of the motion of daughter galaxies in space, Fig. 7.13.

Diagram of the Motions of Four Generations of Daughter Galaxies.
(52) Figure # 7.13

The prediction of the complex motion of daughter galaxies indicates that the distances from the first mother galaxy to its daughter galaxies increase with each generation.

Each daughter galaxy moves along a spiral trajectory around its parent galaxy. As the generation number of the daughter galaxies increases, the trajectories of these galaxies are directed away from the first mother galaxy.

Since the first mother galaxy is the future center of a "depleted" void, it follows that the motion of the daughter galaxies is directed away from the void and its center.

This prediction is confirmed by observational data.

Studies of the motion of galaxies around local voids show that the movement of galaxies is directed away from the void and its center. The birthplace of the mother galaxy is located in the central part of the void. Consequently, the motion of the daughter galaxies is directed toward the periphery.

That is, not only are gas flows directed into the star-forming region, but star formation itself is directed toward the gas flows. In the void, there is insufficient "building" material; therefore, the evolution of matter within the void is impossible.

Within the volumes of depleted voids, star formation once existed, and this star formation consumed all or nearly all of the gas. As gas density decreased, star formation diminished. With a further decrease in gas density below the critical parameters required for star formation, star formation ceased. Galaxies and their stars age. Old galaxies "die" along with their old stars.

Depleted voids, in their structure, bear similarities to inner voids. There is a high probability of these two types of voids merging, overlapping with each other, and the evolution of a depleted void into an inner void.

"Depleted Voids" can form within the zone of "inner voids" and at the boundaries of inner voids, increasing their volume. It is possible that "inner voids" may initially form from "depleted voids." In this case, the "Logical Diagram of Void Formation" is shown in Figure # 7.14.

Logical Diagram of Void Formation.
(53) Figure # 7.14

A logically fundamental diagram of the formation and arrangement of voids in outer space, according to their classification.

The classification of voids by type is a conditional classification. More precisely, the considered classification of voids is a classification of the forces and causes of void formation. However, during void formation, the discussed causes and forces, characteristic of different types, may simultaneously overlap with one another.

The formation of "inner" and "depleted" voids may occur under the combined influence of the causes and forces acting for both of these void types. The KBC Void is an outer void for the Laniakea galaxy cluster and the Local Group. But this same KBC Void is an "inner" void for the galaxies and galaxy clusters surrounding it from the outside. The division of cosmic voids into types is an auxiliary tool for understanding the physics of void formation.

This forecast has covered possible scenarios for the formation of voids in outer space. However, each forecast must be verified against observational data.

Let us compare the analytical forecast with the observational data obtained from studies of the KBC Void and the Laniakea and Local Group galaxy clusters.

Figure # 7.15a depicts a diagram of the KBC Void. Figure # 7.15b shows a logically fundamental diagram of gas motion within the KBC Void, under the influence of inward-drawing forces into the star-forming regions of outer space. At the boundary of the KBC Void, galaxies in which star formation is occurring are arranged in a chain.

Consequently, gas from the KBC Void is drawn into regions of outer space where star formation is occurring. Such regions of outer space include the Laniakea galaxy cluster, along with the Local Group, located inside the KBC Void, as well as the galaxies situated at the boundary of this void. Therefore, for the Laniakea galaxy cluster and the Local Group, the KBC Void is an outer void, while for the galaxies located on the outer boundary of the void, the KBC Void is an inner void.

(54) Figure # 7.15

How was the KBC Void formed? What types of voids contributed to the formation of this void? Astrophysics today cannot answer these questions. Investigating the space of the void itself, the objects located within it, and the radiation from these objects may partially provide useful information.

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